• Rampersad, G., and T. Althiyabi. 2020. “Fake News: Acceptance by Demographics and Culture on Social Media.” Journal of Information Technology and Politics 17 (1): 1–11. https://doi.or g/10.1080/19331681.2019.1686676. • Schiffrin, A. 2017. “Disinformation and Democracy: The Internet Transformed Protest but Did Not Improve Democracy.” Journal of International Affairs 71 (1): 117–26. • Republic of Mauritania. 2020. ‫ةيمسرلا ةديرجلا‬ ‫ةيناتيروملا ةيمالسإلا ةيروهمجلل‬، ‫ ددعلا‬1467. (Gazette of the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, No. 1467.) Accessed November 11, 2021. http:// www.msgg.gov.mr/sites/default/files/2021-04/ J.O.%201467%20A%20DU%2015.08.2020.pdf. • Shuqeir, Y. 2019. “Access to Information in the Arab World: Focusing on Jordan, Tunisia and Yemen.” ARIJ (Arab Reporters for Investigative Journalism) Policy Paper. Accessed November 22, 2021. https://arij.net/wp-content/ uploads/2019/02/Freedom-of-Information-inthe-Arab-World_ENG.pdf. • RSF (Reporters Without Borders). 2020. “Iraqi Regulator Wants to Suspend Reuters over Coronavirus Reporting.” April 3, 2020. Accessed November 21, 2021. https://rsf.org/en/news/ iraqi-regulator-wants-suspend-reuters-overcoronavirus-reporting. • Sibbald, K. 2021. “Iraq Parliament Suspends Draconian Cybercrimes Bill.” Human Rights Watch, May 7, 2021. Accessed November 20, 2021. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/05/07/ iraq-parliament-suspends-draconiancybercrimes-bill. • RSF. 2021a. “Algeria: Reporter Jailed after Covering Tuareg Protests in Southern Algeria.” April 29, 2021. Accessed November 21, 2021. https://rsf.org/en/news/algeria-reporter-jailedafter-covering-tuareg-protests-southern-algeria. • Silverman, C. 2020. “Verification Handbook for Disinformation and Media Manipulation.” European Journalism Centre. Accessed November 21, 2021. https://datajournalism.com/ read/handbook/verification-3. • RSF. 2021b. “2021 World Press Freedom Index.” Accessed November 21, 2021. https://rsf.org/en/ ranking. • SJS (Somali Journalists Syndicate). 2020. ‫وعدت‬ ‫يلاموصلا سيئرلا نييلاموصلا نييفحصلا ةباقن‬ ‫مالعإلا لئاسو نوناق عورشم عيقوت ضفرو بجح ىلإ‬ ‫( يشحولا‬The Somali Journalists Syndicate calls on the Somali president to refuse to sign the brutal media bill.) January 24, 2020. Accessed November 11, 2021. https://bit.ly/3CkAP2y. • Saadany, H., E. Mohamed, and C. Orasan. 2020. “Fake or Real? A Study of Arabic Satirical Fake News.” Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop on Rumours and Deception in Social Media, November 1, 2020. Spain: Association for Computational Linguistics. Accessed November 25, 2021. https://arxiv.org/abs/2011.00452. • Sabbeh, S., and S. Baatwah. 2018. “Arabic News Credibility on Twitter: An Enhanced Model Using Hybrid Features.” Journal of Theoretical and Applied Information Technology 96 (8): 2327–38. Accessed November 22, 2021. http://www.jatit. org/volumes/Vol96No8/22Vol96No8.pdf. • Salama, H. 2020. “Fake News on Social Media and Its Efficiency as Sources of Information on the COVID-19 Pandemic: Field Study.” Egyptian Journal for Public Opinion Research 3 (2): 161–235. Accessed November 21, 2021. https://joa.journals.ekb.eg/article_144433_ f9b54e4731f9b3391362684a18dd8785.pdf. • Samaro, D. 2020. ‫يسنوتلا بعشلا باون سلجم‬: ‫لالغتسا مأ ةفئازلا رابخألل يدصتلل ةردابم‬ ‫( ?ةيساسألا تايرحلا كاهتنال‬Tunisia’s Parliament on COVID-19: An initiative to fight disinformation or an opportunity to violate fundamental rights?) Access Now, March 31, 2020. Accessed November 20, 2021. https://bit.ly/2X43vNa. • Sana. 2021. ‫عم لصاوتلاو تاعئاشلا تابيرست‬ ‫ةينوناق ةيلوؤسم اهيلع بترتت ةهوبشم تاحفص‬ (Spreading rumors and communicating with suspicious pages will result in legal responsibility.) January 30, 2021. Accessed November 21, 2021. https://www.sana. sy/?p=1306246. • State Information Service Egypt. 2020. ‫سلجم‬ ‫ءارزولا‬: ‫عاذأ نم لك لايح ةينوناقلا تاءارجإلا ذاختا‬ ‫( تاعئاش وأ ةبذاك تانايب وأ ًارابخأ‬Cabinet: Legal action against anyone who spreads fake news or rumors.) March 10, 2020. Accessed December 1, 2021. https://bit.ly/3lDCxpR. • Tando, E. C. Jr., Z. W. Lim, and R. Ling. 2017. “Defining ‘Fake News’: A Typology of Scholarly Definitions.” Digital Journalism 6 (2): 137–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2017.1360143. • Tortoise Media. n.d. “The Global AI Index.” Accessed November 21, 2021. https://www. tortoisemedia.com/intelligence/global-ai/. • UAE Cabinet. n.d. “His Excellency Omar Bin Sultan Al Olama.” Accessed November 21, 2021. https://www.uaecabinet.ae/en/details/cabinetmembers/his-excellency-omar-bin-sultan-alolama. • UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). n.d. “Media and Information Literacy.” Accessed November 21, 2021. https://en.unesco.org/themes/media-andinformation-literacy. • UNESCO IITE (UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education). n.d. “Media and Information Literacy.” Accessed November 22, 2021. https://iite.unesco.org/mil/. • UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund). 2020. “The Ministry of Information Partners with WHO, UNICEF and UNDP to Counter the Spread of COVID-19 Misinformation in Lebanon.” April 21, 2020. Accessed November 22, 2021. https://www.unicef.org/lebanon/press-releases/ ministry-information-partners-who-unicef-andundp-counter-spread-covid-19. • Wafa. 2020. ‫قالتخا نم رذحي ماعلا بئانلا‬ ‫( ةبذاكلا رابخألا لوادتو‬The Attorney General warns against fabricating and circulating fake news.) May 27, 2020. Accessed December 1, 2021. http://wafa.ps/ar_page. aspx?id=X8YcFGa876781512684aX8YcFG. • Wardle, C., and H. Derakshan. 2017. “Information Disorder: Toward an Interdisciplinary Framework for Research and Policy Making.” Council of Europe Report DGI(2017)09, September 27, 2017. Accessed November 22, 2021. https://rm.coe.int/information-disordertoward-an-interdisciplinary-framework-forresearc/168076277c. • WHO (World Health Organization). n.d. “Infodemic.” Accessed November 21, 2021. https://www.who.int/health-topics/ infodemic#tab=tab_1. • Zamit, F., A. Kooli, and I. Toumi. 2020. “An Examination of Tunisian Fact-Checking Resources in the Context of COVID-19.” Journal of Science Communication 19 (7). https://doi. org/10.22323/2.19070204. • Zhuk, D., A. Tretiakov, A. Gordeichuk, and A. Puchkovskaia. 2018. “Methods to Identify Fake News in Social Media Using Artificial Intelligence Technologies.” Communications in Computer and Information Science 858 (1): 446–54. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-030-02843-5_36. • UNDP (United Nations Development Program). 2021. “Le PNUD et la plateforme Tahaqaq s’associent contre les fausses informations au Maroc.” (The UNDP and the Tahaqaq platform join forces against false information in Morocco.) June 19, 2021. Accessed November 21, 2021. https://fr.al3omk.com/14780.html. • UNDP Lebanon. 2021. ‫رارقتسالاو ةفئازلا رابخألا‬ ‫”يعامتجالا‬, ‫يعامتجالا رارقتسالا و ةفئازلا رابخألا‬ (Fake news and social stability.) Accessed December 10, 2021. https://www.lb.undp.org/ content/lebanon/ar/home/library/fake-newsand-social-stability.html. I N FO R M ATI O N D I SO R D ER IN THE GLOBA L SOUTH Middle East and North Africa – 76