• Hespress. 2020. ‫رابخأ جيورت نم رذحت ةيلخادلا‬ ‫( انوروك لوح ةفئاز‬The Ministry of the Interior warns against spreading false news about “corona.”) March, 4, 2020. Accessed December 2, 2021. https://bit.ly/2VvGuSu. • Hijij, H., and H. Hamza. 2018. “Broadcast Crime and False Rumors (A Comparative Study).” Journal of University of Babylon for Humanities 26 (7): 243–95. Accessed November 22, 2021. https://journalofbabylon.com/index.php/JUBH/ article/view/1624/1290. • HRW (Human Rights Watch). 2021. “Egypt: No End to Escalating Repression.” January 13, 2021. Accessed November 21, 2021. https://www.hrw. org/news/2021/01/13/egypt-no-end-escalatingrepression. • ICFJ (International Center for Journalists). 2018. “ICFJ Survey: The State of Technology in Global Newsrooms.” Washington, DC: ICJF. Accessed November 22, 2021. https://www.icfj.org/sites/ default/files/2018-04/ICFJTechSurveyFINAL.pdf. • Ireton, C., and J. Posetti, eds. 2018. Journalism, “Fake News” and Disinformation: Handbook for Journalism Education and Training. Paris: UNESCO. Accessed November 20, 2021. https:// en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/journalism_ fake_news_disinformation_print_friendly_0.pdf. • Ireton, C., and J. Posetti, eds. 2020. ‫ةفاحصلا‬ ‫ليلضتلاو ةفئازلا رابخألاو‬: ‫سيردتلا ليلد‬ ‫( ةفاحصلا لاجم يف بيردتلاو‬Journalism, “Fake News” and Disinformation: A Handbook for Journalism Education and Training.) Paris: UNESCO; Potsdam: Friedrich Naumann Foundation. Accessed December 17, 2021. www. gcedclearinghouse.org/sites/default/files/ resources/200255ara.pdf. • Jones, M. 2019. “Propaganda, Fake News, and Fake Trends: The Weaponization of Twitter Bots in the Gulf Crisis.” International Journal of Communication 13: 1389–1415. Accessed November 21, 2021. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ ijoc/article/view/8994. • Jordan Media Institute. n.d. “Publications.” Accessed November 22, 2021. https://www.jmi. edu.jo/en/publications. • Kacha, Y. 2020. “In a Post-COVID-19 World, ‘Fake News’ Laws, a New Blow to Freedom of Expression in Algeria and Morocco/Western Sahara?” Amnesty International, May 29, 2020. Accessed November 20, 2021. https://bit. ly/3jvbytR. • Kang, J., and S. Lee. 2019. “Algorithm Design to Judge Fake News Based on Big Data and Artificial Intelligence.” International Journal of Internet, Broadcasting and Communication 11 (2): 50–58. Accessed November 22, 2021. https://www.koreascience.or.kr/article/ JAKO201916842431907.pdf. • Kohlbacher, F. 2006. “The Use of Qualitative Content Analysis in Case Study Research.” Forum: Qualitative Social Research 7 (1): 1–30. https://doi.org/10.17169/fqs-7.1.75. news spreads through social media sites.) 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Radwan. 2020. “The Role of Social Media in Spreading Panic among Primary and Secondary School Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Online Questionnaire Study from the Gaza Strip, Palestine.” Heliyon 6 (12): e05807. Accessed November 21, 2021. https://reader.elsevier.com/ reader/sd/pii/S2405844020326505?token=D2A 138jGA62q1BkSvj9bQ6eDCqxqVhyBbpNH76921F 1A33BA53ED8F654AFEDEBA23BEAEB7C94C09 AB92AB328B4787FD0A&originRegion=eu-west1&originCreation=20210628210543. Middle East and North Africa – 75