were affected by rumors about the new virus, which spurred media actors to counter these rumors. On the other hand, technology in general, and particularly social media, cannot be accused of being the sole trigger of fake news. Moreover, technology can deter fake news; for example, Facebook has developed an AI system to detect content containing hate speech. AI is also employed by researchers in the UAE and Jordan to detect fabricated news or photos through the use of algorithms (Atif, Mahdy, Technology can deter and Moustafa 2020, 20). fake news; for example, AI can also be used to check news produced by citizen journalists. Facebook has developed an Although reports by citizens may AI system to detect content contain elements of false news, there containing hate speech. is a difference between this type of news and disinformation. In citizen journalism the source of the news is known, and it contributes to the diversity of news sources, whereas disinformation is spread by unknown actors who also use technology to pursue their own agendas (Al Jalabneh and Safori 2020, 9441). Moreover, citizen journalists contribute to hindering the circulation of fake news. Activists and citizen journalists have found that mainstream media steer away from fact checking content (Bailla and Yachoulti 2020, 23). It could be argued that conventional media are under governmental control and that their monitoring processes are associated with political interests, with other issues being marginalized. It follows that civil society leads the project of monitoring fake news (Ben Messaoud 2021, 32). Through a review of the research focusing on fake news in Arab states, we explore the topics mentioned above. Scholars have focused on the two dimensions of fake news as categorized by Tando, Lim, and Ling (2017): propaganda and satire. The concept of “infodemic” has also sparked the interest of researchers from different Arab countries, who have outlined solutions based on media literacy and media education to train the public and professionals to deal with fake news. Researchers in Arab countries have shone a light on the positive role of social media and AI, and the deterring role of legislation. As traditional media tend to refrain from taking a stand against fake news, research has focused on the independent initiatives that are trying to bridge the gap. However, scholars have raised concerns regarding the sustainability and methodologies of these initiatives. Hence, they propose further research to measure the impact of these independent projects on the public and on traditional media. I N FO R M ATI O N D I SO R D ER IN THE GLOBA L SOUTH 2. METHODOLOGY AND SCOPE Because of the low number of academic studies tackling fake news in the Arab world compared to other regions of the world, this review adopted a qualitative approach to explore the multidimensional phenomenon of disinformation in Arab countries. For instance, a search for the term “fake news” on Google Scholar returned 582,000 results, while the equivalent in Arabic—‫ةفئازلا رابخألا‬ ‫—ةفئازلا تامولعملا‬generates only 173 results. The Arabic term for “information disorder—‫بارطضالا‬ ‫ يتامولعملا‬,‫—يتامولعملا للخلا‬does not appear in this academic database at all. A narrow range of studies was selected to be analyzed.47 We selected fifty-nine studies out of 173 academic papers contained in Google Scholar database, covering sixteen countries. The selection was done based on three criteria: 1. Studies were selected that address fake news or disinformation in Arab countries, published by Arab education academic institutions and by other institutions. 2. Studies were included that were published in high-profile journals or by recognized academic or research organizations. 3. Studies were selected in such a way that most of the twenty-two Arab countries are represented and all dimensions related to fake news are covered. Content analysis, as a qualitative tool (Brennen 2013, 1), is applied in this review. The main tool in content analysis is the category system, which is applied to every dimension of the study (Kohlbacher 2006, 15). Based on the concepts discussed in the introduction, the literature review is categorized according to the salient topics in Arab countries: propaganda, Covid-19 and the infodemic, and sarcasm and fake news. This review also attempts to make recommendations for future action and to detect gaps in the literature and suggest avenues for future research. Middle East and North Africa – 62