Table 3. Ownership and political connections of main non-state news media (TV and Print), January 2015. Source: Based on information from author’s interviews. (Cont.) Outlet Name/Type Parent Company Funding/ Ownership Politics The Myanmar Times (Weekly Print English Language) Myanmar Consolidate Media Ross Dunkley (49 percent) Thein Tun (51 percent) Formerly considered close to the regime, as part owned by Sonny Swe (See Mizzima), son of General Thein Swe. Toe Naing Mann Owner son of Shwe Mann (Speaker of the lower house 2011–2016), former General and leading figure in the military government. Not very political, focused on entertainment. The Street View (Weekly Print) The Voice (Weekly & Daily Print) Living Color Media Group Wife of late Nay Win Maung Kyaw Min Swe (Editor) Political independent, but often critical of the government. Yangon Times (Weekly & Daily Print) Yangon Media Group U Ko Ko (Chairman) Chairman former Secretary of MWJA (Myanmar Writers and Journalist Association), which was close to the Ministry of Information. From 2011 gained greater independence. day.47 Private outlets could not compete in terms of economic resources, distribution networks or cover price. Operating in a poor country with a modest advertising market, many private media failed to survive. Advertisers often preferred to work with higher-circulation state-run outlets than with the privately-owned media. In 2014, financial difficulties forced three privately owned dailies to close within a month (Cunningham, 2014). A lack of business acumen among those running private newspapers is another factor hampering their success. Trained managers are scarce and many editors are former political prisoners or exiled activists with no business experience.48 Financial backers willing to suffer losses while a newspaper establishes a foothold in the market are hard to find. As in other liberalizing states, those with the deepest pockets were often cronies of the regime (Becker, 2004; Heng, 2002; Porto & Hallin, 2009). Depending on business elites with connections to the government entailed editorial compromise at best. Privatemedia owners used their political leverage to extract economic and regulatory favors from government benefactors in exchange for turning a blind eye to official corruption and failed programs.49 A few lucky outlets, such as DVB and The Chronicle secured funding from international NGOs, but such sources of finance are limited.50 Ties to financial and business interests have restricted what Myanmar’s journalists can report about economics as well as politics. Traditionally, the watch47 48 49 50 51 52 53 dog role of the media is defined as behavior that reveals abuses in the exercise of state power and ignores the role of the press as a defense against exploitation in the private sphere—most notably with regard to the economy (Chomsky & Herman, 1988; Donohue, 1995). Clearly, the media should act as a source of redress against the abuse of all forms of power. But in Myanmar, privately owned media outlets have refrained from investigating the activities of the conglomerates to which they belong. At SkyNet, for example, a journalist reports being instructed by editors to refrain from investigating misdemeanors by businesses within the same holding company.51 A journalist at Mandalay FM was told not to report on any topics that might jeopardize company profits or advertising revenues.52 When company profits are not in jeopardy, Myanmar’s media have shown a predilection for sensationalism and scandal. Growing competition in the media market has encouraged tabloidization and an emphasis on infotainment over serious news. Myanmar is not alone. In the West, the search for profits in an increasingly crowded market has led to a decline in news quality (Barnett, 1998; Postman, 1986). In democratizing states like Myanmar, where scandal and gossip were previously forbidden, audiences have become transfixed by ‘yellow journalism’.53 When tabloid newspaper The Sun Rays (Thuriya Naywon) hit the newsstands in 2013, its mixture of colorful cover pages, scandal and sensa- Author’s interview with IPC member, September 2015. Author’s interview with Sun Ray editor, December 2013. Author’s interview with People’s Age reporter, December 2013. Author’s interviews with DVB presenter and The Chronicle editor, December 2013. Author’s interview with SkyNet News reporter, December 2013. Author’s interview with Mandalay FM reporter, December 2013. Author’s interview with Myanmar Times editor, December 2013. Politics and Governance, 2017, Volume 5, Issue 2, Pages 41–58 53