Victoire Rio The Role of Social Media in Fomenting Violence: Myanmar 3 place in Meiktila (2013), West Bago Region (2013), Mandalay (2014) and Lashio (2014), and the country has been affected more broadly by violent mobs targeting individuals and property, as well as limitations on the religious freedom and freedom of movement of Muslim minorities. Formalisation of an organised Buddhist Nationalist movement The rise in inter-communal tensions was fueled by, and fed into, the formalisation of an organised Buddhist nationalist movement, led by Buddhist monks. The 969 movement emerged as a response to what was seen as a rising and existential Muslim threat to Buddhism – driven by an internal threat linked to inter-religious marriage and high birth rates, and an external threat linked to immigration and terrorism. Banned in 2013 by the Buddhist clergy, 969 paved the way for Ma Ba Tha (the Organization for the Protection of Race and Religion), a more organised network with a significant local presence at the township level and a member base reportedly exceeding 100,000. Ma Ba Tha achieved political prominence by advocating for a set of Race and Religion Laws, which were passed in 2015 following an intense campaign that built on a stigmatising and occasionally dehumanising anti-Muslim narrative. Though formally banned in 2017, Ma Ba Tha has continued to reinvent itself under different branding and their ideology continues to exert influence in many circles across Myanmar. The Internet Landscape: Facebook First A connectivity revolution During its military years, Myanmar was largely disconnected from the outside world. Public information was heavily controlled and digital access severely constrained by poor infrastructure and high prices. In 2013, the country started liberalising its telecommunications sector, resulting in the introduction of two foreign telecommunication operators (Telenor and Ooredoo) in 2014. The new operators immediately drove prices down – from the equivalent of two hundred US dollars for a SIM card in early 2014 (more than the average household monthly expenditure) to approximately $1.50 USD, significantly increasing affordability. As prices dropped and infrastructure projects multiplied, millions of people across the country gained access to smartphones and mobile data. Nowhere has the connectivity revolution been so drastic. Myanmar, a country of 53 million, went from having an internet penetration of 0.23% in 2011 to 39% in 2019 with the number of active SIM cards surpassing people by 2017.