Table 2: Observed Strategies, Tools and Techniques of Social Media Manipulation in Kenya Account Types Messaging and Valence Content and Platforms Communication Strategies Human Bots Support Attacking Opposition Suppression Disinformation Trolls Twitter WhatsApp Facebook Source: Authors’ evaluations based on data collected. Blank spaces indicate no evidence was found. Organizational Capacity and Resources It seems most of the activities surrounding the latest election ceased after the election was done, but their effects continue; elections are becoming more and more expensive as candidates are no longer just politicians but brands that are carefully managed by growing online campaign teams. Such “brand-management” continues outside of election cycles through, for example, Twitter profiles. In terms of resources, the Jubilee party reportedly spent $6m on Cambridge Analytica during the 2017 election, with Kenyan politicians spending an average of $50m on their campaigns (though it is unclear how much of that would be spent on online influence campaigns) (Nyabola, 2019). Table 3: Cyber Troop Capacity in Kenya Team Size Resources Spent Activity Levels (USD) $6 Mio. Temporary Coordination Capacity Measure Liminal Source: Authors’ evaluations based on data collected. Blank spaces indicate no evidence was found. References Anzalone, C. (2020). Addressing the Enemy: Al-Shabaab’s PSYOPS Media Warfare. CTCSENTINEL, 13(3). https://ctc.usma.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/CTCSENTINEL-032020.pdf BBC News. (2017, June 26). Kenya’s election: Your questions answered. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-39810869 Constitutional Petition In the matter of the Legal and Constitutional validity of the Governments’ decision through the Communications Authority of Kenya to secretly acquire capability for spying on the population by tapping the networks of Mobile Phone providers, No. 53 (High Court of Kenya April 19, 2018). https://globalfreedomofexpression.columbia.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/KENYAJUDGMENT-ON-RIGHT-TO-PRIVACY-DEVICE-MANAGEMENT-SYSTEM.pdf Dahir, A. L. (2017, June 25). Raila Odinga and Uhuru Kenyatta are being hit by fake news in Kenya’s election campaign—Quartz Africa. Quartz Africa. https://qz.com/africa/1011989/fake-news-and-misinformation-are-upstaging-kenyasupcoming-high-stakes-election/ Elliott, R. (2017, July 18). GeoPoll and Portland launch a Survey Report on Fake News in Kenya. GeoPoll. https://www.geopoll.com/blog/geopoll-and-portland-launch-a-surveyreport-on-fake-news-in-kenya/ Freedom House. (2018a). Kenya: Cybercrimes Law Restricts Media Freedom. Freedom House. https://freedomhouse.org/article/kenya-cybercrimes-law-restricts-media-freedom 229