Table 2: Observed Strategies, Tools and Techniques of Social Media Manipulation in Iran Account Types Messaging and Valence Content and Platforms Communication Strategies Fake, Human, Automated, Impersonation Pro-Government, Attacking Opposition, Suppressing Speech, Polarising messages Attacking government Creation of Disinformation, Facebook, Twitter, Amplifying authentic and Instagram, inauthentic content, Telegram, Google Impersonating journalists, trolling Source: Authors’ evaluations based on data collected. Blank spaces indicate no evidence was found. Organizational Capacity and Resources Iran’s disinformation efforts initially developed to manipulate domestic political conversations, before gradually expanding to include more languages, themes, and targets (Timberg & Romm, 199