International Journal of Communication 10(2016) Burmese Media in Transition 193 Influence of the (Formerly) Exile and Ethnic Media Pluralistic media often develop faster in countries with a tradition of samizdat or alternative media, in part because these media challenge authoritarian ways of approaching information and disagreements. The existence of exile media differentiates Burma from many other countries, because exiled journalists had more than two decades to attend trainings, rub shoulders with foreign journalists, and become familiar with global journalistic standards—opportunities rarely available for journalists inside. One of the few full-time journalism trainers in the country during the early transition period, Ye Naing Moe, believes that this is why the formerly exile media’s coverage of Burma’s sectarian violence is better balanced than other Burmese media (personal communication, July 26, 2013). Networks play an important role in spreading ideas, and those at the boundaries of a group tend to act as a bridge between in-group and out-group communication, thereby enabling social change (Voltmer, 2013). While the formerly exile media help to bridge the newly returned exile and internal communities, ethnic media play a vital role in bridging the country’s ethnic divide. Thus far, the disparities between the mainstream exile and ethnic media remain consistent as these groups move inside, although the country’s history of ethnic conflict reinforces why scholars and policy makers must also include the existence and health of ethnic media organizations in their support for and assessment of the overall media landscape in Myanmar. It remains to be seen how ethnic issues and ethnic media will be incorporated into the changing media landscape. One group working to improve the profile and reach of ethnic media is the consortium of 12 ethnic media groups, Burma News International, established in Thailand in 2003 and now based in Yangon (Brooten, 2013a). Former secretary of Burma News International, Khin Maung Shwe, finds that the writing of stringers for Yangon-based media “is not really focused on the ethnic perspective . . . [whereas] the ethnic media understand their people” (personal communication, July 21, 2013). Yet regional and ethnic media’s importance for local communities, for the diversification of media, and for informing national political debates is largely ignored. As Khin Maung Shwe asks, “Where do the natural resources come from? On the self-determination and political issues, who rules? The rural areas . . . everything is happening there. But the news does not come out. It is nonsense” (personal communication, July 21, 2013). Diversity Versus Urban-centric Media Media diversity, although vital, is both geographically and ethnically challenging. Ghana’s transition, for example, reinforced the concentration of media in urban areas, making it difficult for rural people to express their concerns and resulting in an overemphasis on the concerns of socioeconomic elites, the inability to raise independent funding, and thus dependence on political patrons (Arthur, 2010). Critics and regional journalists refer to the Manila-centric nature of the Philippine media as “Imperial Manila,” a phenomenon that has arguably exacerbated the Muslim insurgency in the south. There is a strong need in multicultural states with a history of ethnic conflict, especially during periods of transition, for independent media in local languages to bring both literate and illiterate rural peoples into the political discussion (Arthur, 2010). This is definitely the case in Myanmar.