linked accounts, new ones appear, often disguised as independent news outlets. These accounts spread false reports, label opposition figures as foreign agents, and manipulate the narrative surrounding elections and conflict, thereby reaching an even wider audience online. Covert proxies Beyond official State media, the military relies on military proxies and coordinated online campaigns to maintain its grip on information. These proxies, ranging from so-called “independent” influencers to organised disinformation networks, systematically flood social media with misleading stories, harass human rights defenders, and artificially amplify promilitary content. This digital manipulation further obscures the truth, making it nearly impossible for citizens to access independent, accurate information. Disinformation laws a tool to silence dissent Myanmar’s legal framework includes multiple laws ostensibly designed to prevent disinformation that instigates hatred and violence. The military’s Constitution (2008) limits civil and political rights and prohibits the politicisation of religion by barring acts likely to promote hatred or discord among racial or religious communities (Arts 364, 365). 2 The Penal Code (1861) includes broad provisions criminalising incitement to war, promoting hatred, and acts that stir public fear or incite offenses against particular groups. Specialised laws, such as the Broadcasting Law, Electronic Transactions Law, News Media Law, Peaceful Assembly and Procession Law, Printing and Publishing Law, and Telecommunications Law, all contain further provisions against inflammatory content. However, in practice, these laws are wielded arbitrarily to silence dissent rather than to address genuine disinformation. They provide authorities with sweeping powers to censor content and stifle dissent under the guise of maintaining public order and protecting community harmony. The human rights toll of disinformation Disinformation in Myanmar has a profound and direct impact on several fundamental human rights. Eroding freedom of expression Disinformation in Myanmar undermines the right to seek, receive, and share information (ICCPR, Art. 19). With an “information coup” in place, State-sponsored narratives crowd out dissenting voices, effectively stifling freedom of expression and impeding the public’s ability to make informed decisions.3 2 3 Free Expression Myanmar (2022), “UN submission on military propaganda and disinformation”. Free Expression Myanmar (2023), “Military orchestrated an ’information coup’”.