Mobile Myanmar: The Impact of Social Media on Young People Living in Conflict-Affected Regions of Myanmar INTRODUCTION The introduction of cheap, easily accessible, web-enabled mobile communication devices in Myanmar is one of the most notable and profound changes to have emerged out of Myanmar’s political transition from military to civilian rule in 2011. It sparked, as McCarthy notes, “a dramatic transformation in how people consume information, maintain relationships, build communities, and mobilise social movements” (McCarthy, 2017, p. 92). Though internet access in Myanmar became available in the late 1990s, until 2011 it was restricted to the wealthy and/or politically connected. Prior to liberalisation of the telecoms market in 2011, Myanmar had the lowest mobile penetration in the world at 2.6% (Qiu, 2014). The arrival of two international mobile providers – Telenor and Ooredoo – alongside the state provider MPT saw over 42 million sim-cards sold by mid-2016, around half of which regularly used internet data (Nyunt, 2016). With the sudden widespread uptake of internet access, Myanmar’s population joined others across the world in utilising social media platforms to maintain and build new relationships, and to keep up to date with, and express opinions on, national and international events. While bringing a host of practical, material, and social benefits for Myanmar’s population, the ubiquitous use of social media platforms has had a well-publicised dark side. According to a Telenor report, 78% of Myanmar internet users have poor digital literacy skills due to their lack of previous experience with digital media (Telenor, 2018). Without the tools needed to navigate the online world safely, responsibly and – in the case of fake news and hate speech – critically, Myanmar users are especially susceptible to disinformation campaigns. The dangers of hate speech have increasingly come to the forefront as exemplified by the recent unveiling of the 2019 United Nations Strategy and Plan on Hate Speech by UN Secretary-General António Guterres. At its launch, Guterres declared that, “Hate speech may have gained a foothold, but it is now on notice.” The UN Strategy and Plan on Hate Speech defines hate speech as: “any kind of communication in speech, writing or behaviour, that attacks or uses pejorative or discriminatory language with reference to a person or a group on the basis of who they are, in other words, based on their religion, ethnicity, nationality, race, colour, descent, gender or other identity factor. This is often rooted in, and generates intolerance and hatred and, in certain contexts, can be demeaning and divisive” (United Nations, 2019, p. 2). As the most prevalent users of social media platforms, young people in Myanmar are particularly at risk from potential negative effects of using social media. This is a cause of concern as Myanmar is a relatively young country – estimates suggest that 55% of Myanmar’s population are under 30 years of age, and 33% are between 15 and 35 years old. The national median age in Myanmar is 27, although in the two areas of focus – Rakhine State and Kayah State – that figure is even lower, at 26 and 23.6 respectively (Grizelj, 2017). Extensive international scrutiny of one platform – Facebook – has repeatedly alleged that the rapid distribution of provocative content (as enabled by the site) played a role inciting intercommunal conflict in Myanmar as far back as 2012 (Mozur, 2018). Criticism of Facebook’s community management systems increased with the escalation of violence in Rakhine State in 2016-17. Although Facebook has and continues to make attempts to address these issues (for example by strengthening its community guidelines), it is yet unclear whether the platform has a holistic and wholescale strategy for curtailing the spread of fake news and hate speech on its site. However, to date very little substantive research has investigated the actual impacts of increased exposure to online hate speech and fake news on populations of any age in Myanmar, let alone young people. The assumption that platforms like Facebook increase the reach and speed of transmission of dangerous discourses is logical, but little is known as to how variables like trust affect changes in attitudes and offline behaviours. Moreover, while international researchers are increasingly studying the emotional and psychological impacts of social media use on young people, such studies are yet to be conducted in Myanmar. 12