also scientific journalists hinders efforts to counter Covid-19 disinformation (Zamit, Kooli, and Toumi 2020, 13). In a study conducted by Atif, Mahdy, and Moustafa (2020, 34) for ARIJ, the researchers recommend that a manual be developed about health media, discussing the mistakes most commonly made in media coverage of health issues and the ethics related to health media. 3.3 SATIRE AND FAKE NEWS This dimension is distinct from those already discussed, as the spread of fake news is correlated mainly, as seen above in several contexts, with social media and unstructured communication, while satirical media are structured and managed by journalists. Satirical news is defined as news that is published to criticize traditional and real news; it thus imitates the format of traditional news (Aballah 2018, 7). However, some researchers argue that satirical media can be instruments for the dissemination of fake news (Mekawy 2021, 280). Other researchers Other researchers distinguish distinguish between satirical news between satirical news and fake and fake news, as fake news is news, as fake news is deliberately deliberately intended to mislead intended to mislead readers readers (Aballah 2018, 7). While sarcasm and satire are intended to (Aballah 2018, 7). While sarcasm entertain the audience, they can also and satire are intended to entertain cause confusion between real and the audience, they can also cause fake news (Mekawy 2021, 278). confusion between real and fake Researchers have investigated news (Mekawy 2021, 278). this potential confusion; two prominent examples of platforms that have been researched are the Jordanian newspaper Al Hudood and the Egyptian online platform Al-Ahram Mexico. For instance, in 2015 the Egyptian army shot twelve Mexican tourists in a vehicle after mistaking them for terrorists. Subsequently, an Egyptian satirical website reported that the Mexican president, Henrico Iglassios, stated that he recognizes the right of the Egyptian army to defend its land against terrorism and accepts its apologies. Subsequently, the hashtag #ThankYouHenricoIglassios trended on Twitter and the Egyptian mainstream media quoted it. However, a statement released by the Mexican presidency denied the report (Saadany, Mohamed, and Orasan 2020, 1). Saadany, Mohamed, and Orasan (2020, 2) note that the writing style of the Al-Ahram Mexico website mimics the style of the official news agency. This caused confusion and made it hard to identify this report as satirical news. I N FO R M ATI O N D I SO R D ER IN THE GLOBA L SOUTH A study by Aballah (2018) concluded that 92 percent of the satirical reports published by Al Hudood are based on real news and that it also mimics the style of real news. It publishes mainly news related to current events (84 percent), uses quotes from sources, and also includes photographs along with text (Aballah 2018, 14–15). Saadany, Mohamed, and Orasan (2020, 9) used AI to reveal that the sarcasm or satire is not very explicit and that the news could thus be taken to be real. When sarcasm is not clearly identifiable, it can have misleading consequences, as in the case of Al-Ahram Mexico (Saadany, Mohamed, and Orasan 2020, 2). For this reason, Saadany, Mohamed, and Orasan (2020, 9) recommend the use of AI, as it was able to detect the “deceptive content of the satirical fake news article published by Al-Ahram Mexico, which was the cause of the diplomatic crisis between Egypt and Mexico.” Aballah (2018, 36) recommends the promotion of media literacy, which is required to distinguish between untruths, satirical news, and fake news. These are two examples of recommendations that have been made in order to curb fake news in Arab states. 4. SOLUTIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND FUTURE PROSPECTS Scholars have come up with many solutions that could help to get rid of fake news or at least limit its devastating impact on society. Atif, Mahdy, and Moustafa (2020, 28–35), in their study on combating disinformation in Arab countries, propose some solutions for eliminating fake news, namely media education, training for journalists on fact checking, independent media and news verification initiatives, and laws deterring the spread of rumors. 4.1 MEDIA AND INFORMATION LITERACY AND FACTCHECKING TRAINING Media and information literacy is defined by UNESCO as a mechanism that “provides answers to the questions that we all ask ourselves at some point. How can we access, search, critically assess, use and contribute content wisely, both online and offline?” (UNESCO n.d.). An inability to assess the veracity of information is highlighted as one of the significant factors that leads to the consumption of Middle East and North Africa – 6 8