• • • • • • through modern communication means (Hespress 2020). Previously, Prime Minister Saadeddine Othmani had warned against publishing incorrect or false information about the spread of the coronavirus (Chef du Gouvernement, Royaume du Maroc 2020). Algeria: In April 2020, the Fatwa Committee of the Ministry of Religious Affairs issued a religious decree on rumors and exchanging news without verifying the source. Saudi Arabia: In February 2021, the Public Prosecution “banned the broadcast of rumors, publishing false news and information and everything that would mislead society, impact the security of the community and its health, or disturb the peace and tranquility of its members. Committing such harmful actions over social media sites has become a crime that warrants arrest.”29 The UAE: In April 2020, the Council of Ministers adopted a decision on the publication and exchange of information regarding health issues and diseases and misinformation related to health. It announced, “It is prohibited for any person to publish, republish or circulate false, misleading or incorrect instructions on health issues or information that is not announced officially … Based on this decision, fines of up to 20,000 Dirhams will be imposed on violators” (Emirates News Agency 2020; authors’ translation). Kuwait: In March 2020, the Kuwaiti Public Prosecution announced a policy of zero tolerance of rumors spread about the coronavirus and stressed that the government would take maximum measures and decisions against anyone who spreads false news and rumors on websites or social media sites, in print media, or through audiovisual media (Kuna 2020). Palestine: In May 2020, the Attorney General warned against fabricating and circulating false news and rumors on social media sites, because of their harmful impact on society. Anyone who publishes false information, news, statements, or rumors on any website can be punished by law with imprisonment and a fine (Wafa 2020). Oman: In February 2020, the Public Prosecution issued a statement to announce that sending or resending false news or rumors that may harm the public order through technological means is a crime punishable by imprisonment for three years.30 I N FO R M ATI O N D I SO R D ER IN THE GLOBA L SOUTH Arab countries have used the relevant legislation as an excuse to suppress freedom of opinion and expression in the name of combating false information and fake news. This has been carried out by applying pressure on the media; closing a number of outlets; and arresting and imprisoning journalists, activists, opponents and critics of the regimes, or influential political parties. This has been highlighted in several reports issued by global organizations such as Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and Reporters Without Borders, in addition to local human rights organizations. There are plenty of examples, of which the following are only a few: • Iraq: In April 2020, the Media and Communications Commission suspended the license of the Reuters office in the country for three months and imposed a fine of twenty-five million Iraqi di- • • • • nars on it for publishing a report on the number of coronavirus infections (RSF 2020). Egypt: In March 2021, human rights activist Sana’a Seif was indicted on charges of spreading “false news” and “misusing social media sites” (Amnesty International 2021). According to the Human Rights Watch 2021 World Report, many arrests in Egypt were based on unfounded accusations, such as “spreading false news” (HRW 2021). Morocco: In April 2020, a Moroccan court ordered the arrest and prosecution of human rights advocate Omar Naji, under Article 447-2 of the Criminal Code. This threatens “anyone who broadcasts or spreads false claims or incidents with the intent of slandering people or harming their lives” with imprisonment of up to three years and a fine of up to 20,000 dirhams (Kacha 2020). Algeria: In April 2021, the Tamanrasset court refused to release journalist Rabih Karash, who is in temporary detention due to accusations of “spreading false news,” as announced by the Liberté newspaper, for which he works (RSF 2021a). Bahrain: According to a 2020 Amnesty International report, Bahrain used Covid-19 as an excuse to further suppress freedom of expression. The Ministry of the Interior announced that the Cyber Crime Directorate assigned employees to “monitor and track offending [social media] accounts.” Middle East and North Africa – 53