disinformation. Campo (2020) discusses paths to a legal solution, drawing attention to the state not only as a regulator of disinformation in society, but also as a disseminator of false content. Making the connection with electoral regulation, Brito Cruz (2020) underscores how the legal arrangements created for broadcasting come up against structural limits in dealing with the networked dissemination of disinformation, resulting in inefficiency and a series of risks for digital rights. 4. GAPS IN THE RESEARCH AND CHALLENGES This review aimed to present a synthesis of the Latin American and Caribbean academic literature on disinformation and related concepts. It must be acknowledged that the problem has gained relevance and become the object of a significant volume of research in recent years. However, it is evident that most academic studies still originate in the region’s largest nations, and it is important to evaluate how to stimulate this type of research in smaller countries, especially in the Caribbean. Media manipulation is certainly not a new theme in the region, especially in studies on media and politics, which focus on the role of traditional communication media and political agents. Recognizing the fact that disinformation has been a phenomenon in the region for quite some time is important, as it confronts an often limited view on the part of authors from the Global North, namely that disinformation has emerged mainly through digital platforms. The literature from the Global North thus ultimately espouses the conclusion that merely “more journalism” will solve the phenomenon and its negative impacts. This, however, minimizes the history of practices involving the use of traditional media to promote the interests of certain individuals or those of political allies. Conversely, some of the works reviewed here mention the phenomenon as present even in traditional media. The latter can therefore not be the “solution” or the only counterpoint to the circulation of content on digital platforms; rather, what is required is a move towards a multi-pronged response. Although the perception outlined above is a key aspect of the Latin American and Caribbean view, one of the gaps that exists in the literature is a deeper inquiry into how “traditional” forms of disinformation are linked to the new forms and to I N FO R M ATI O N D I SO R D ER IN THE GLOBA L SOUTH the actions of traditional media agents. In fact, many of the media groups examined in the studies on manipulation and the media are currently sponsors of projects to check and combat disinformation.62 This is a relevant area for future analysis in the countries of the region. Regarding conceptual frameworks, the studies analyzed are generally anchored in literature from the Global North, with some referencing Latin American authors (more so in nations with Spanish as an official language—access to output in this language allows for greater exchange, as it is an official language in many countries of the region). The most cited works are the ones frequently recommended on academic search engines and databases, which heightens their visibility and their use for referencing purposes. The inadequacies of this attempt at transposing Global North approaches to the Global South are related to language differences. In English a distinction is made between “disinformation,” “misinformation,” and “malinformation,” but the same does not hold for either Spanish or Portuguese. Attempts at using the Spanish or Portuguese equivalents of these English terms have thus resulted in difficulties. However, more than a translation problem, this is a conceptual importation that is done without regard for a more critical evaluation of the phenomenon from the perspective of the region. Such an evaluation would incorporate the specificities of the region and problematize the philosophical and epistemological aspects associated with the concept, such as the very issue of defining the conditions for assessing truth as a counterpoint to that which is false or misleading. The literature examined does not fail to take notice of the changes in the pattern of disinformation, especially as related to digital platforms. Notwithstanding the fact that the topic has been addressed in a significant number of papers (with debates on the direct correlation between the platforms’ operational dynamics and the circulation of disinformation), there is a need for more research on the impact of this architecture. Further research could seek to more concretely examine the mechanisms made available by each of the intermediaries found on the internet, from Latin America and the Caribbean – 1 27