In the opinion of Vladimir Chorny (interview, August 2021) of R3D, the problem cuts across different political groups: “The interests represented by disinformation come from different political and ideological spectrums. The problems and sources of disinformation have to do with, among other things, party issues. We see that there is biased handling of information that misleads, on the part of both the opposition and the government.” 9.2 ACTORS AND STRATEGIES TO COMBAT DISINFORMATION CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANIZATIONS There are various civil society organizations in Mexico with different ways of combating the phenomenon of disinformation. ARTICLE 19 An office of the international civil association Article 19 has been set up in Mexico. The entity monitors the legal and regulatory debate on issues related to freedom of expression, including disinformation. According to Martha Tudón (interview, August 2021) from Article 19, different bills have been presented in Mexico with the purpose of fighting disinformation, but these have been problematic for freedom of expression. The organization is leading this discussion in society and among members of congress and political actors. Faced with the difficulty of influencing Parliament, civil society organizations have sought different strategies, such as communication with the public. Tudón (interview, August 2021) states: There is no process in Parliament open to the public, neither in the House nor in the Senate. But what has worked in collaboration with other organizations is to organize strategic communication campaigns about the initiatives and also to highlight that they are emerging from a lack of technical understanding. It depends on senators who are not part of the majority group—if they want to open up and act as a kind of brake. One of the lessons learnt by the organization, according to Tudón, was that they needed to address legislators’ lack of technical knowledge about how the internet works, which was reflected in the contents of the proposals for new legislation: “[Their own lack of knowledge] generated unease among legislators. At the same time, as part of a communication campaign, it has served to share knowledge and to ensure the message reaches the press.” I N FO R M ATI O N D I SO R D ER IN THE GLOBA L SOUTH Another subject that Article 19 is monitoring is the use of public resources and their possible employment in disinformation practices. One of the cases monitored by the organization is that of the state news agency, Notimex, which at one point was being used for disinformation campaigns against journalists who criticized the government. R3D R3D (Red en Defensa de Derechos Digitales; Network for the Defense of Digital Rights) works with issue analysis and information production. The organization produces documents, such as articles about disinformation and ways to combat it, which are disseminated to try to influence public debate and decision makers. R3D also works with training. One of its activities is a course aimed at judges on topics related to digital rights, such as freedom of expression in the digital environment, privacy, and access. Workshops have also been held for civil society organizations and citizens. According to Vladimir Chorny (interview, August 2021), different civil associations are cooperating to react to initiatives, such as legal measures, which supposedly aim to combat disinformation but that put freedom of expression and other rights at risk. An example is legislation which may have a negative impact on citizens’ rights and on a free and open internet. The positions formulated by these organizations are disseminated through various channels, and traditional media are employed to amplify these discourses. The organizations also take part in events promoted by institutions, such as public hearings, although according to Chorny this type of situation is more exceptional. This collective effort takes place not only among Mexican entities but also with international organizations. These civil society networks thus seek to exert pressure from the outside towards the inside, with the aim of making local political actors back down on projects or change their content. Chorny says that one of the lessons learnt through the organization’s work is that, in terms of human rights violations and disinformation, leftwing governments do not necessarily have more appropriate or democratic attitudes. In the case of Mexico, President López Obrador’s administration has been marked by attacks against journalists and persecution of critics of the government. These attacks have included the dissemination of false content, for example about the pandemic. The organization’s work has also made clear the importance of increasing collective action in the Latin America and the Caribbean – 1 0 8