62 Hate Speech Ignited: Understanding Hate Speech in Myanmar C. Channels and Forms of Dissemination Hate speech in Myanmar is disseminated using a variety of channels. The first part of this section will discuss online channels with a specific focus on Facebook. The latter part is dedicated to other “offline” methods of dissemination. Online Channels The role of Facebook in Myanmar With the rapid rise in Internet connectivity, propagators of hate speech have increasingly turned to online channels to disseminate their messages. Facebook has played the most significant role as the main social media platform in the country. For many of Myanmar’s 20 million Facebook users, the social media platform is “their main source of information.”356 Moreover, the lack of digital and social media literacy, the cheap and easy access to the social media platform, and the use of Facebook by government institutions as well as major media outlets in Myanmar as their principal communication channel with the public have created the perception that information circulated on Facebook is reliable.357 Coupled with relative user anonymity and difficulties associated with monitoring and removing content in a timely manner, the dominant status of Facebook has made the platform a powerful avenue for the dissemination of hate speech.358 The spread of hate speech on Facebook has frequently involved the use of fake accounts and fake news. In 2018, the New York Times exposed years of Tatmadaw-led online campaigns, which have systematically deployed hundreds of military personnel to “create troll accounts and news and celebrity pages on Facebook” and “tend the pages to attract large numbers of followers.”359 The pages then have become “distribution channel for lurid photos, false news and inflammatory posts,” after which fake accounts have been used to share the content, silence opposing voices, and incite quarrels among commenters to enrage the public—all timed for peak viewership.360 One CSO representative observed that much of the content in the social media pages have often been “clickbait”—information such as tips for romantic relationships and eye-catching imagery— meant to lure unsuspecting users to hate speech content included among harmless posts.361 Another interviewee also noted the artificial pattern have been observed, with the same comments being copied and pasted at noticeably regular intervals, highlighting the systematic nature of the posts and there likely orchestration.362 Confirming the existence of harmful content, Facebook removed a total of 490 Facebook pages, 163 Facebook accounts, 17 groups, and 16 Instagram accounts during the latter half of 2018.363 Among 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 BSR, 13. A/HRC/39/CRP.2, para. 1345. Ibid., para. 1346. Mozur. Ibid. 001-R1-02. 002-R1-01. Facebook, “Removing Myanmar Military Officials from Facebook,” December 18, 2018, https://newsroom.fb.com/