Background: History of Hate Speech in Myanmar 1961, the government installed Buddhism as the state religion, a move that alienated non-Buddhist ethnic groups.33 U Nu opposed “minority rights,” viewing them as remnants of British imperialism that undermined “national unity.”34 For U Nu’s central government, national unity meant assimilating the population under the Buddhist Bamar mono-ethnic, national identity.35 When the central government failed to honor its promises of granting autonomy and protecting minority rights, some ethnic armed organizations (“EAOs”) rebelled, with some seeking secession.36 The EAOs quest for autonomy and self-determination in a federal, democratic Myanmar continues to this very day with many engaged in ongoing armed struggle against the Myanmar military, known as the Tatmadaw. The Tatmadaw led by General Ne Win was initially brought in by U Nu in 1958 to form a temporary caretaker government to maintain internal peace and restore order.37 In 1962, General Ne Win led a coup and permanently deposed the civilian government and cre- ated a military junta to rule the country.38 The junta dismantled the parliament and the judiciary, established one-party rule, and nationalized the economy.39 The country’s human rights record became marred by systemic abuse and violations spanning the spectrum of civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights.40 Threats of “ethnic uprising” and the need to prevent the “disintegration of the union” were utilized by the military to justify authoritarianism.41 Instead of embracing Myanmar’s diversity, the Tatmadaw’s nation-building has revolved around creating a national identity based on excluding “others” and removing influences perceived to be alien.42 The military junta, like the British colonial- ists, engaged in ethnological projects about ethnic communities.43 A 1967 study, for instance, wrote that the Karen people “love war and fighting and have a tradition of taking revenge,” which it argued accounted for their underdevelopment.44 The military held themselves out as “saviors” who were keeping Myanmar whole, battling against both internal disruptors like the EAOs and external foreign forces seeking to destroy the country.45 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 Ibid., 57. Ibid., 55. Ibid. Bertil Lintner, Land of Jade: A Journey Through Insurgent Burma (Edinburgh: Kiscadale Publications, 1990), 167. Gravers, 55. Ibid. Ibid., 22. Ibid. Cho, 43. Ibid., 46; Keck, 67. Cho, 47. Ibid. Gravers, 65. 19