68 Hate Speech Ignited: Understanding Hate Speech in Myanmar lam as a threat to Myanmar.426 Others explained that some mainstream, including the state-run and military-owned, news sources including: Eleven, 7 Days News, New Light of Myanmar (Myanma Alin), Myawaddy News, MCNTV, Kamaryut Media (a main distributor of Ministry of Information propagan- da), Thuriya Nay Won, and The Mirror (Kyemon) have perpetuated hate speech by reporting news in a seemingly professional manner yet with a racial bias.427 Pamphlets have served as another inexpensive and effective means of distributing hate speech. One interviewee described how pamphlets have been used by groups such as the Pa-O National Organization (PNO), a Pa-O political party in Myanmar with an EAO armed wing, the Pa-O National Army, to further religious tensions between Buddhists and Muslims in Shan State: Many rumors were spread out, like provoking people to burn down all the Mus- lim-owned shops. At that time, I called all my Muslim friends to react to the violence calmly, because we don’t know where all the propaganda comes from. . . . The darker the night fell, the louder the rumors were. Mosques were burned. Pamphlets were distributed everywhere in the town.428 In another example, an interviewee explained that members of the Democratic Karen Buddhist Army (“DKBA”)429 distributed anti-Muslim pamphlets in the villages around Hlaingbwe for 1,000 MMK and “put it in every home.”430 Finally, one activist noted that in 2012, Zaykarbar Khin Shwe’s organization distributed pamphlets with the clear message that “the Imams of the mosque are preaching every Friday to kill non-Muslims.”431 Overall, forms of offline hate speech have been present in local communities for many years and are deeply embedded in culture and the education system. As one activist explained: The actual population who spread hate speech exists in the community and lives in the community. They have their institutions and community. They were working offline even before Facebook existed, so the hate speech won’t stop just because Face- book bans them. They have many other platforms. They have television channels and radios. Those are more effective.432 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 Ibid., 6; 001-R1-02, 3. Ibid. 001-R2-02, 1. [TG: timing on the incidents in question – will add later] A Karen EAO which has supported Tatmadaw operations against other EAOs. 001-R1-01, 3. [TG: timing on the incidents in question – will add later] Ibid., 6. Ibid.