66 Hate Speech Ignited: Understanding Hate Speech in Myanmar More recently, another application that has become popular among ultranationalist groups and government and military officials is OK Bah [meaning, [being taking down by FB] is ok or no problem!.”401 The app was designed to facilitate free discussions with little to no threat of censorship, but no crit- icism of China or the Chinese government is permitted due to the role of Chinese developers in its creation.402 Though OK Bah is still not as widely used as Facebook in Myanmar, there has been a lot of activity on the app, especially surrounding the activities of Ma Ba Tha.403 CSOs who have studied this application found that posts have been taken from OK Bah and reposted on Facebook.404 Additionally, ultranationalist groups have used direct messaging apps such as Facebook Mes- senger, WeChat, and Viber to spread misinformation, compounding the spread of hate narratives.405 In particular, Viber has remained popular among older populations and members of Myanmar’s civil service, the General Administration Department.406 As of 2016, there were approximately 25 million Viber users in Myanmar.407 Encrypted messaging apps such as WhatsApp, already under fire for en- abling incitement and lynch mobs in India, may also exacerbate the situation, making it even more challenging to track and stop the dissemination of problematic content.408 CSO interviewees also described how hate speech has been circulated in large online groups through websites such as Yangon Chat and Mandalay Chat, which existed even before the advent of Facebook.409 Interviewees believe that certain participants pretending to be members of other reli- gious groups sign in online to inflame opinions even further.410 However, despite the various other means through which hate speech has been spread, the use of social media like Facebook has greatly expanded the reach and power of such hate speech.411 Addressing social media’s role in the hate speech problem requires at a minimum greater data transparency, analysis, and coordination among relevant stakeholders.412 Offline Channels In addition to spreading hate speech through online channels, ultranationalist groups like Ma Ba Tha have also used more traditional methods to share the message, including preaching and sermon tours, newspapers, pamphlets, DVDs, and books. Electronic media—movies and DVDs According to the CSOs, Ma Ba Tha and other ultranationalist groups have distributed DVDs containing hate speech and anti-Muslim messages at public places including boat docks, tea shops, and bus and 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. BSR, 14; 002-R1-01; FGD (January 2019 and December 2019). 002-R1-01. BSR, 12–13. Ibid., 54. FGD (January 2019). Ibid.; See also 001-R1-01. Stecklow; Elise Thomas, “Facebook Keeps Failing in Myanmar,” Foreign Policy, June 21, 2019, https://foreignpolicy. com/2019/06/21/facebook-keeps-failing-in-myanmar-zuckerberg-arakan-army-rakhine/. Ibid.