governments have embarked on over the last decade. These are the introduction of a digital identity card, and SIM card registration. Developments on these and associated privacy and human rights risks, are outlined below. Introduction of eID The ID4D initiative16 has argued that digital identity is an important enabler of development, but should be implemented in line with the Principles on Identification for Sustainable Development (see below). If an individual lacks documentation, this can be a major barrier to realizing the right to citizenship, as well as other fundamental rights such as healthcare, education, employment and access to economic inclusion opportunities such as banking and mobile phones.17 According to the 2014 Myanmar Census, 27.3% of the population holds no identity document (it should be noted that the many challenges associated with the Census, the first to be conducted for decades, mean that even this figure may be an underestimate of the situation as it pertained in 2014). Obtaining a Citizenship Scrutiny Card (CSC) requires extensive evidential documents that are difficult and costly for many people to provide, such as ’household lists’ which those living in informal settlements do not have. The current laws and their discriminatory implementation have made access to citizenship and identity documentation difficult and costly, particularly for ethnic and religious minorities.18 Furthermore, some ethnic minority individuals report that their name, of an ethnic language origin, is mis-spelt in Myanmar language on the ID card, leading to alternate spellings on different documents. Statelessness is also a serious risk for many in Myanmar due to the interpretation and application of the 1982 Citizenship Law, which forms the central pillar of the current citizenship regime. The Myanmar Citizenship Scrutiny Card contains a photo, fingerprint, and handwritten information covering: • ID Number • Race (lu-myo) • Issue Date • Religion (batha) • Name • Height • Father’s Name • Blood group • Date of Birth • Distinguishing Characteristics Surprisingly, Gender is not a category included in the CSC. • • • • Occupation Address Signature of Holder Signature and rank of issuer The inclusion of Race and Religion is problematic. In addition to being unnecessary to determine identity, and potentially a source of harm through discrimination, some card holders report that what immigration officials write on the card differs from the individual’s own expression of their ethnicity or religion. The system is currently paper-based. If an individual loses their card, they need to return to their home township to obtain a replacement from the local immigration office, where details are held on paper files. With the weakening of local administration since the military coup, and the damage to local 16 id4d.worldbank.org However some civil society groups globally have challenged the conclusion that this requires introduction of digital ID – see WhyID, Access Now https://www.accessnow.org/whyid/ 18 For further information on the application of Myanmar citizenship and identity laws, see A Legal Guide to Citizenship and Identity Documents In Myanmar, December 2018, Justice Base and Navigating with a Faulty Map: Access to Citizenship Documents and Citizenship in Myanmar, Institute on Statelessness and Inclusion, October 2021 17 6