လက်လမ . ်းမ.ီမ1အေပ4 အတားအဆီးများ Obstacles to Access A1: အေြခခံအေဆာက်အအံဆ F င Fိ ရ ် ာ ချိM Uတမ ့ဲ ,များသည် အင်တာနက် လက်လမ 4 ်းမ4ီမ,ကိF ကန်သ F ့ တ ် အင်တာနက် ့ တ်ပါသလား သိမဟF ၂ မ4တ ် A1: Do infrastructural limitations restrict access to the internet or the speed and quality of internet connections? (0–6 points) 2 ချိတဆ ် က်မ,အြမန်Yန , ်းY4င ့် အရည်အေသွးကိF ကန်သတ် ပါသလား။ (၀-၆ မ4တ)် ့ Though internet penetration in Myanmar has expanded in recent years, internet access was severely impeded during the coverage period by damage to infrastructure, internet shutdowns (see A3), and high costs imposed by the military (see A2). By January 2022, 45.9 percent of the population had access to the internet, according to the Digital 2022 report, an increase from 43 percent in 2021.2 The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) reported an internet penetration rate of 35 percent as of 2020.3 In 2018, the Ministry of Transport and Communications (MoTC) had set a target of 99 percent internet penetration by the end of 2022, but it will likely fall far short.4 Most users rely on mobile services,5 with 73 million mobile connections as of January 2022, representing a 134 percent penetration rate.6 The penetration rate is comparably high because many users have multiple SIM cards,7 a trend that increased after the coup began as people discarded and replaced SIM cards to avoid surveillance and to boycott military-controlled service providers.8 Fixed-line and wireless broadband represented just 0.5 percent of connections in 2020; while this number has not changed in several years,9 the number of connections may have increased in some urban areas during the COVID-19 pandemic.10 Telecommunications infrastructure has been damaged as the armed conflict between the military and antigovernment forces continued, and expansion has similarly been curtailed by physical insecurity. A state-controlled newspaper reported that than 400 cell towers were destroyed between February and December 2021.11 The military has planted antipersonnel landmines around other towers, and telecommunications providers have stopped servicing towers after at least four engineers were seriously injured by unmarked mines in September and October 2021.12 Infrastructure development continues to be hampered by flooding, unreliable electricity, an inefficient bureaucracy, and private- and publicsector corruption. Daily power outages throughout the coverage period,13 ranging from 5 to 16 hours in length,14 have also impacted connectivity. In March 2022, the Ministry of Power and Energy announced that 24-hour-long outages may occur in parts of Myanmar, citing infrastructure repairs, though sources claimed that daylong outages were already taking place in Yangon.15 ် ပ်မ/ - ြမန်မာ2ိင 4 င ် ံ Free Expression Myanmar (FEM) and Freedom House - Freedom of the Net: Myanmar - အင်တာနက်ေပ*တွင် လွတလ