Annex: Myanmar’s media regulatory and
criminal law framework
Myanmar’s media has historically been overburdened with restrictive, burdensome,
and contradictory regulations, featuring unnecessary and disproportionate criminal
penalties that create significant risk for media outlets and journalists alike. The following
table outlines Myanmar’s recent political periods and the related regulatory context.
Comparing Recent Historical Periods in Myanmar
CATEGORY
1992 - 2011
2011 - 2016
2016-2021
>>> TRANSITIONAL PERIOD >>>
2021 ONGOING
Administration
Military
Quasi-civilian
Elected civilian
Military71
Ruling party
State Peace and
Development
Council (SPDC)
Union
Solidarity and
Development
Party (USDP)
National League
for Democracy
(NLD)
State
Administration
Council (SAC)
Leader
Military leader,
Than Shwe
Former military
leader, Thein
Sein
Party leader,
Aung San Suu
Kyi
Military leader,
Min Aung Hlaing
Licensing and
censorship
Licensing and
prior-censorship
of all publications
Print licensing
retained with
new safeguards
Broadcast
licensing
reformed but
unimplemented
Print licensing
returns with
criminal
sanctions
Media
landscape
Independent
media operate in
exile
Exiled
independent
media move into
Myanmar
Media
consolidation
Independent
media move into
exile
The media experienced widespread, gross, and systematic violations of the rights to
freedom of expression and freedom of association under the military administration
that ruled Myanmar until 2011. There were three types of media outlets operating at
that time. The first was state-owned or “crony”-owned propaganda outlets, including all
broadcasters and major print media.72 The second was independent outlets that focused
71 The military was unable to consolidate nationwide control after the start of the coup d’état on 1 February 2021, leaving large
areas of territory controlled by either an oppositional group, or by no clear institution. Previous administrations did not control all
territory too, but did control more, and control more substantively. See: OHCHR (2023), “Illegal and Illegitimate: Examining the
Myanmar Military’s Claim as the Government of Myanmar and the International Response”.
72 In Myanmar, a “crony” is an individual who has benefited economically from their close links to the military. The military granted
some cronies with media licenses. The cronies’ media outlets, which covered broadcast, print, internet, literature, and cinema,
often featured a mixture of light entertainment and pro-military messaging.
Assessing Detentions of Journalists in Myanmar, Feb. 2021 to Feb. 2025
26