registration mandate issued by the PTA under the Monitoring and Reconciliation of Telephony Traffic Regulation, 2010 (Ali, 2024). Officials defended the measure as necessary to curb “immoral” content and terrorist activity. Simultaneously, users experienced slow internet speeds, allegedly due to web-management system upgrades, raising concerns about a national firewall following previous deployments of Sandvine technology (Aziz, 2024). Government officials have provided conflicting statements on the existence of such a system, but patterns of throttling, slow speeds, and VPN restrictions indicate enhanced digital surveillance without official disclosure. Furthermore, under PTA directives, telecommunication companies operate a mass surveillance system, as confirmed by an Islamabad High Court ruling that exposed warrantless data interception (Abbas, 2024). This was later reinforced by a government notification authorizing the country’s intelligence agency to conduct surveillance for “national security.” Litigation has emerged as the primary avenue for civil society to hold the government accountable. Alongside this, CSOs actively engage in policy advocacy, public awareness efforts, and capacity-building programs while also providing legal assistance in digital rights-centered court cases. TABLE 4 - RELEVANT TECH-RELATED POLICIES IN PAKISTAN Law Prevention of Electronic Crimes Act, 2016 ●​ ●​ ●​ ●​ Description Has been used to charge journalists, political activists, and academics for “anti-state” and “anti-institution” speech. Criminal defamation has been abused against women in retaliation to #MeToo disclosures. Constitutionality challenged before courts and currently pending decision by the Supreme Court. Various High Courts have called out the investigation agency for abuse of power. A presidential ordinance expanded its scope to include the institutions of military and judiciary as potential targets of cyber offenses, thereby increasing digital policing. 16