Major risers 2019 Rank Rise in rank Country Groups Total 4 2 Afghanistan Hazara, Pashtun, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Turkmen, Baluchis, Kuchis 20.529 10 3 Central African Muslims, Christians; Kaba (Sara), Republic Mboum, Mbororo, Gula, Aka 17.718 16 4 Iran Arabs, Azeris, Bahá’í, Baluchis, Kurds, Turkomen 15.087 17 14 Cameroon Anglophones, Bakassi 14.939 23 5 Chad Black African’ groups, Arabs, Southerners 13.610 27 3 Mali Tuareg, Arabs, Maure, and others in the north 12.914 32 3 Venezuela Indigenous peoples, Afro-descendants, political/social targets 11.928 34 12 Niger Djerema-Songhai, Hausa, Tuaregs 11.866 43 8 El Salvador Political/social targets 10.690 47 27 Nicaragua Indigenous peoples, Creoles 10.264 54 16 India Assamese, Bodos, Nagas, Tripuras, other Adivasis; Kashmiris, Sikhs, Muslims, Dalits 9.910 70 12 Burkina Faso Mossi, Foulse, Peuhl (Fulani) 8.912 Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham (ISIS) has employed similar tactics. During its ascendancy, the fear instilled by graphic videos of executions, attacks and other content distributed through its sophisticated online presence encouraged many members of minorities to flee the territory under its control. But with the collapse of the group’s self-described caliphate in Iraq and Syria, along with its rebranding as a global entity now under way, ISIS likely will seek to leverage social media to promote further attacks on civilian populations in future. There is currently a debate around the effectiveness of restricting social media to prevent violence when tensions are running high. While many governments impose social media controls in an attempt to lessen dissent or division, easing restrictions can Peoples under Threat 2019 unintentionally empower and unite extreme voices, as has occurred in the wake of Ethiopia’s democratic reforms. Religious or ethnic divides – often linked to colonial legacies and manipulated by contemporary elites – can become more salient through social media, prompting retreats into insular solidarities amenable to radicalization. Where inter-communal animosities exist, inflammatory misinformation and disinformation promoted on social media can spiral quickly into violence. Online hate speech and incitement in the Central African Republic (CAR) has played a role in fuelling cycles of atrocities between Christians and Muslims in recent years. In India, where social media has invigorated an aggressive, exclusionary Hindu nationalism, rumours and hate speech spread on WhatApp have led to a 3