Myanmar military has carried out systematic clearance operations in 2017 against the Rohingya people in response to the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army attacks, another situation that was largely amplified by digital hate speech and the propagation of unverified rumors.121 Hundreds of thousands of Rohingya have fled to Bangladesh as a result, with many reports documenting systematic rape by security forces and affiliated militia groups, and over 6,000 civilian deaths. United Nations officials and human-rights organizations have characterized the Rakhine State security operations as ethnic cleansing. Case Study 4: Radicalization and Recruitment – the ISIS media jihad In contrast to most violent extremist organizations, digital propaganda is a central aspect of the Islamic State’s approach to contemporary jihad. ISIS leadership go so far as to elevate the production and dissemination of propaganda as a form of worship.122 In doing so, ISIS has been particularly successful in exploiting defining elements of social media — peer-to-peer communication, near real-time user-generated content and low-cost dissemination of multimedia content — to spread extremist propaganda; target, manipulate, and seek to recruit supporters; and coordinate tactical operations. Weaponization via radicalization and recruitment ISIS has rebranded the image of radical extremism through messages of inclusiveness and belonging — many of which are disseminated online. An initial focus on gaining currency among extremist and fringe demographics has been replaced by a broader approach to appeal to wider audiences.123 By rebranding itself, ISIS has set the bar for strategic communications efforts among violent extremist networks, elevating the importance of inclusive narratives, crowd-sourced content, multi-modal media and strategic counterspeech in the arsenal of asymmetrical warfare. The affordances of social media allow for near-instantaneous access to emotionally resonant narratives, reduce costs associated with participation in formal organizations, offer a relatively risk-free entry point for potential recruits to find like-minded individuals, and create a social environment in which extremist views are normalized. In short, “social media provides cheaper and more accessible pathways to radicalization.”124 These features of the contemporary information landscape are perfectly aligned with the franchised nature of modern terrorist organizations and operations.125 Techniques and tactics ISIS adapts conventional recruiting techniques to the digital information environment, allowing for more targeted campaigning, more emotionally-resonant messaging, and more personalized exchanges between operatives and potential recruits. Specific tactics include: Targeting younger, tech-savvy millennials who feel isolated from society, lack a strong sense of identity or purpose, and are frustrated with their economic, familial, or interpersonal situations.126 These 121 According to Paladino, “In the wake of the ARSA attacks, the Facebook group for Ma Ba Tha supporters registered a significant spike in anti-Rohingya messages, illustrating the powerful tendency of such online associations to amplify and reinforce the thoughts of its individual members.” (Paladino, 9). 122 Winter, 11, 17. 123 Koerner, 2016. 124 Zeitzoff, 9. 125 Theohary and Rollins, 4. 126 See Dylan Gerstel, “ISIS and Innovative Propaganda: Confronting Extremism in the Digital Age,” Swarthmore International Relations Journal Issue 1 (2017) pg. 2; and Lydia Wilson, “Understanding the Appeal of ISIS” New England Journal of Public Policy Vol 29 No. 1 (March 2017), pg. 8. MERCY CORPS The Weaponization of Social Media: How social media can spark violence and what can be done about it 50