Table 2 Connotative context factors, inductively inferred from 32 in-depth expert interviews in Malaysia, Myanmar, and Thailand. Left column: connotative context factors relevant to understanding media control mechanisms; right column: relevant factors to explain the three forms of disinformation. OVERALL SIGNIFICANT FACTORS (De)centrality Social stratifications/polarizations Supremacy of (religious) norms and values Persisting conflicts National security Seniority Culture of (dis)agreement Multiethnicity Multilingual societies Ownership/financial structure Mechanisms of intimidation8 Rule of law vs. Rule by law OTHER RELEVANT FACTORS FACTORS EXPLAINING DISINFORMATION Social stratifications/polarizations Supremacy of (religious) norms and values Persisting conflicts Seniority Culture of (dis)agreement Multiethnicity Multilingual societies Education system Nation-building/national identity Racism Technological standard/development Transformative dynamics Trust Alternative (communication) structures Censorship/self-censorship Civil society Commercialization Education system Freedom of information Ideology of powerful elites Journalism culture (tradition)/role perception Nation-building/national identity Partisanship/clientelism/patronage Political regime and structures Racism Societies expectations/media role Socio-economic structures Technological standard/development Transformative dynamics Trust We can see that there are well-known factors for the analysis of media systems and media freedom like ownership structures or de(centrality), but also less common factors which bear a lot of                                                                                                                         Mechanisms of intimidation are manifold, and some listed factors can be subordinated here, but since they have specific analytical power, the list also contains other specific mechanisms of intimidation. 8   75 | Journal of Contemporary Eastern Asia, Vol. 18, No.2