LATIN AMERICA AND
THE CARIBBEAN
78
JONAS C. L. VALENTE,
WITH THE COLLABORATION OF
HELOISA MASSARO,
FRANCISCO BRITO CRUZ,
DANIEL MACEDO.
Part 1: General Overview
1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2. Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.1 Mapping the Actors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.2 Evaluating the Actors’ Approaches, Tools, and Methods. . 81
3. Methodological Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.1 Regional and National Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.2 Data Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4. Regional Analysis: Disinformation in Latin America and the
Caribbean. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1 The Disinformation Landscape in the Region. . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Actors and Strategies to Combat Disinformation . . . . . . .
4.3 The Responses of Digital Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12. Challenges Faced in Combating Disinformation . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
12.1 Definition of the Phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
12.2 The Region’s Internet Access Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
12.3 Citizens’ Attitudes to Disinformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
12.4 The Multidimensional Nature of the Phenomenon. . . . . . 117
12.5 Fragmented Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
12.6 Political Polarization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
12.7 Challenges Related to Fact Checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
12.8 Challenges Related to Media Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.9 Challenges Related to Research and Knowledge
Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.10 Challenges Related to Regulatory Solutions . . . . . . . . . 120
12.11 The Role of Digital Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
12.12 Using Technology to Combat Disinformation . . . . . . . . . 121
Part 2: Academic Overview
1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2. Conceptual Milestones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2.1 Conceptualization and Characteristics of Disinformation. 123
2.2 Perspectives on Disinformation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
82
83
84
90
92
3. Approaches to Research on Disinformation in the Region. . . . 125
5. Case Study: Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.1 The Disinformation Landscape in the Country. . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.2 Actors and Strategies to Combat Disinformation. . . . . . . . 93
Notes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4. Gaps in the Research and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
List of interviews. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6. Brazil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.1 The Disinformation Scenario in the Country. . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.2 Actors and Strategies to Combat Disinformation. . . . . . . . 96
SUB-SAHARAN
AFRICA
7. Chile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.1 The Disinformation Scenario in the Country. . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.2 Actors and Strategies to Combat Disinformation. . . . . . . 102
ARABA SEY,
KRISTOPHINA SHILONGO,
HANANI HLOMANI,
DOMINIQUE DIOUF.
8. Colombia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
8.1 The Disinformation Scenario in the Country. . . . . . . . . . . . 104
8.2 Actors and Strategies to Combat Disinformation. . . . . . . 104
9. México. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.1 The Disinformation Landscape in the Country. . . . . . . . . . 107
9.2 Actors and Strategies to Combat Disinformation. . . . . . . 108
10. Regulatory Initiatives by Governments and Public Agencies. . 110
10.1 Laws and Regulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
10.2 Bills and Proposals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
11. An Analysis of Actors and Strategies to Combat
Disinformation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
11.1 Conceptualizations of Disinformation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
11.2 Fact Checking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
11.3 Media Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
11.4 Research and Information Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
11.5 Advocacy and Policy Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
I N FO R M ATI O N D I SO R D ER IN THE GLOBA L SOUTH
138
Part 1: General Overview
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
2. Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3. Initiatives to Counter Information Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.1 How Actors Perceive Information Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.2 Types of Actors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.3 Types of Mis- or Disinformation Targeted . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.4 Geographic Focus and Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.5 Organizational Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.6 Time Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4. The Strategies Adopted by Actors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.1 Types of Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.2 Types of Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
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