that “some [journalists] are really intimidated, because when you speak openly or try to correct a narrative, you can be branded as a communist” (interview, 2021). Mong Palatino explained that “any independent information can be instantly equated with anti-state propaganda. If you are deviating from the official narrative, you can be accused of promoting anti-state propaganda, especially in the case of Vietnam” (interview, 2021). Governments can also hinder independent journalism through limitations and restrictions on access to information and legitimate sources (Access Now 2021b). This can be done through bureaucracy and “red tape,” which demotivates journalists and prevents them from accessing reliable sources (Dwyer 2019). As a result, journalists tend to shy away from certain topics or publish information that is not credible. As Jo-Ann Ding from Malaysia explained, “[Journalists] have to beg and borrow. You have to go from department to department, from person to person, within the government setup to get data” (interview, 2021). SELF-CENSORSHIP Another major challenge faced by media and journalists is self-censorship (Wardle and Derakhshan 2017). This behavior can manifest in many ways and is generally linked to pressure from the government and/or political parties. Cultures of self-censorship trickle down from senior editors to the rest of the journalists in media organizations, creating pressure regarding which narratives and stories to follow. Consequently, laws and regulations that restrict media freedom become less needed, as the industry has a mechanism of self-censorship in place (Oh, Ryu, and Park 2020). In Singapore, traditional media organizations have adopted a culture of self-censorship that is essential for their survival within the media landscape of the country. As Kirsten Han mentioned, “I think POFMA just adds to that. What happens if you’re saying something, and the state just says: ‘That’s not true.’ And then you get POFMA’d? What can you do?” (interview, 2021). Similarly, in Indonesia, journalists and even the public tend to self-censor due to fears of imprisonment. Roy Thaniago of Remotivi noted: “I think [people] now tend to be more selfcensoring on what they write” (interview, 2021). I N FO R M ATI O N D I SO R D ER IN THE GLOBA L SOUTH Vadim Sadonshoev added that self-censorship is highly prevalent among journalists and media organizations in Tajikistan. This prevents them from covering sensitive topics (interview, 2021). Needrup Zangpo noted that, in Bhutan, “self-censorship is mostly exercised in areas like religion, ethnicity, regionalism” (interview, 2021). POLITICAL AFFILIATIONS OF MEDIA COMPANIES The media industries in many countries of the region are characterized by political affiliations, ranging from direct ownership of media organizations to indirect relationships between politicians and the owners or top executives of media companies. Such environments lead to a lack of impartiality and transparency in reporting practices, while creating a sense of distrust towards mainstream media among the general public (Yee 2017). According to Roy Thaniago, in Indonesia, “some editors and journalists keep their editorial positions while at the same time running political campaigns. They then leave the editorial position once they are elected or given a governmental position by the winning party. I don’t know how they separate their job in the media and their job in politics” (interview, 2021). In some countries the problems are linked to the core structure and profit-making mechanisms of the industry. When governments play a significant role in funding and advertising on mainstream media, media companies depend on the actions of the government for their survival. This makes them more biased in their reporting, thus affecting their credibility. It even sometimes leads to situations where their political connections cause them to actively spread mis- or disinformation. As Gi Woong Yun explained, the media industry in South Korea is highly dependent on government advertising: “The Korean government has been subsidizing media corporations, for instance by buying media time for government campaigns” (interview, 2021). Needrup Zangpo explained that the newspaper industry of Bhutan, which relies on government advertising, has grown smaller and weaker as the government has cut down on spending. This has led to trust and credibility issues, as the public no longer believe in mainstream media’s role as a watchdog (interview, 2021). Finally, Lola Islamova reported that state media in Uzbekistan do not have editorial independence, as they fully depend on government funding. They therefore cannot criticize the government or question their policies (interview, 2021). Asia – 2 35