where various legal tools have been deployed to regulate information disorder, with some having the specific aim of addressing information disorder around the pandemic. Critics of these laws claim that they are often applied selectively and in a politically motivated manner, and used to stifle freedom of expression when it comes to criticism of the government. Punishments under these laws often include fines and prison sentences. In the Latin American region, laws have also been passed in response to information disorder in the context of the pandemic, as this regional report highlights. The same governments that set about developing legal and policy responses aimed at the information ecosystem are frequently themselves the sources of information disorder. When citizens register their dissatisfaction with governments, governments tend to either engage in spreading disinformation themselves, or respond by shutting down the internet, as is common across Africa and Asia in particular. Although combating information disorder is not a priority for many governments, the Covid-19 pandemic has prompted many of them to launch awareness campaigns aimed at curbing the spread of the virus and encouraging the uptake of vaccines. This has been the case with the majority of governments in the MENA region. The governments of Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia all started initiatives focused on refuting rumors, correcting false information, and promoting public awareness of issues related to Covid-19. Some of the government-led initiatives to combat information disorder in the MENA region predate the Covid-19 crisis. In 2015 the Iraqi Ministry of the Interior launched a Department for Combating Rumors to monitor media outlets and social networking sites in Iraq. It is not clear, however, whether this agency was aimed in the first instance at countering information disorder or rather at silencing those critical of the government. Similar trends can be noted across Asia, where several governments have taken measures to deal with information disorder. These include setting up fact-checking operations themselves, such as task forces and “war rooms.” An example is the Digital Economy and Society Ministry in Thailand’s “Anti-Fake News Center.” In Pakistan, the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting launched a Twitter page titled “Fake News Buster,” while the governments of Singapore, Vietnam, and Malaysia run websites aimed at debunking false information. In Vietnam, the army has a special I N FO R M ATI O N D I SO R D ER IN THE GLOBA L SOUTH online information warfare unit called “Force 47,” which consists of thousands of soldiers tasked with setting up, moderating, and posting on pro-state Facebook groups in order to correct “wrong views” online. The initiatives undertaken by the Indonesian Ministry of Information and Communication Technologies (Kominfo) include a “war room” which uses both humans and artificial intelligence (AI) tools to detect false content. In Sri Lanka, the Ministry of Mass Media runs its own fact-checking operation. Several Latin American countries have also criminalized disinformation. These include Venezuela, Bolivia, Belize, Nicaragua, and the Bahamas, where spreading false news is punishable by fines or prison sentences. In several other countries in this region, bills proposing similar measures are being considered. In Colombia, the government has already implemented “cyber patrols,” specialized groups of security forces set up to monitor the internet with the aim of holding accountable those who contribute to information disorder. In sub-Saharan Africa, only one country (Ethiopia) has legislation that was enacted to directly address information disorder. The rest of the countries make use of an amalgamation of different laws that indirectly address information disorder, including penal codes or laws and cybercrime acts. Examples of such legislation include laws that speak against falsehoods, cybercrimes, disinformation, and, more recently, Covid-19. Civil society actors on the continent have expressed widespread concern regarding the use of legislation to suppress disinformation, given the history of authoritarian regimes in sub-Saharan Africa repressing human rights and the media fraternity through restrictions on the right to information, freedom of the press, and freedom of expression. A key feature of the communication ecosystem across the Global South is uneven, unpredictable, or inadequate access to information. This makes it difficult for journalists, civil society organizations, and fact checkers to access reliable information with which to counter rumors or false information. Only seven countries in the MENA region have adopted legislation guaranteeing the right to access information, and even where laws do exist, they are not always implemented consistently. Given the challenges related to freedom of expression and accessing information, attempts to legislate against information disorder in the region always have to be weighed up against the need to protect freedom of expression. Introduction – 1 8