4. COUNTERING INFORMATION DISORDER The strategies and methodologies proposed by the literature to counter information disorder are derived from the theoretical and empirical understanding of the factors which engender it. Current scholarship emphasizes the promotion of media literacy for the public and media practitioners, the development of communication strategies informed by an understanding of the production and consumption of falsified information, the promotion of access to credible information, data-powered fact-checking strategies, and multifaceted interventions which bring together diverse stakeholders (Seo et al. 2021). Studies conducted in Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, and Zimbabwe have found that information disorder has penetrated various fields of economic activity, impacting on the functionality of various sectors and actors such as public health, financial services, job recruitment, elections, and so forth. Media and information literacy programs are based on the assumption that societies will increasingly be datafied and the public inundated with information. Media and information literacy programs are therefore seen as necessary efforts that must be sustained to target the primary consumers of news media and information. Broadly, media and information literacy empowers citizens with competencies which will enable them to access, critically analyze, create, and consume information. It is, however, also seen as a means for societies to realize their right to access information and to exercise their freedom of expression— based on the idea that literacy will increase the demand for credible information and promote informed expression amongst producers of news and information. Such programs address the issue of poor and/or compromised media that leads to citizen distrust; they also aim to strengthen poor journalistic practices (Seo et al. 2021). The lack of trust in traditional news media in sub-Saharan Africa has given rise to a series of independent fact-checking organizations and initiatives who, despite operating at the I N FO R M ATI O N D I SO R D ER IN THE GLOBA L SOUTH periphery of media institutions, seek to improve upon the journalistic practices that negatively impact media credibility. These organizations or initiatives investigate claims circulating on social media or traditional media with the objective of providing access to information and holding media and politicians to account by engaging the general public in news production (Cheruiyot and Ferrer-Conill 2018). According to Africa’s first factchecking organization, which hosts the largest factchecking network on the continent, the practice of fact checking serves two functions: countering the spread of unverified and/or misleading information and raising the general public’s awareness of how to identify false claims and break circulation (Africa Check 2020). Research on fact-checking organizations and their impact in sub-Saharan Africa is limited, however. The key findings of an evaluation survey conducted by Africa Check (2020) on its Africa Fact network show that fact-checking organizations: • value their audiences’ trust • challenge normative traditional media practices of anonymized sources by developing genuine relationships with trustworthy sources who can verify claims • are committed and prepared to meet (through training and understanding) the demands of the ever-changing nature of information disorder • account for the digital divide in Africa by diversifying working languages and the platforms they use • prioritize collaboration to stay abreast of new innovations and best practice. On the other hand, some studies reveal that media and information literacy and fact-checking practices are a limited response to an issue propelled by complex cultural and social shifts, which are further compounded by the fast-tracked development of information and communication technologies (Wasserman and Madrid-Morales 2018). There is, however, no one approach that works best. The literature suggests a multi-levelled stakeholder approach combining various approaches and/or forming alliances, taking into consideration the disparities between communities in Africa. Combating mis- and disinformation related to Covid-19 will require a coordinated approach that brings together the relevant authorities in public and global health, government agencies, international development organizations, journalists, fact-checking organizations, civil society entities, and community leaders to develop communication Sub -Saharan Africa – 1 70