the existing knowledge and current initiatives are frequently in silos, which impedes the development of broader policy and programmatic solutions—that is, work to bolster responsible journalism is often disconnected from work on digital misinformation campaigns in a given country, or from internet governance fora. At the same time, these efforts to respond to sometimes urgent manifestations of information disorder—for instance related to the threat of violence or to upcoming elections— must improve in their ability to establish long-term development objectives in these contexts: the governance of digital communication technologies, the development of the media sector, and the unpacking of legal and regulatory issues. And this must happen in national, regional, and global contexts where respect for democratic governance is declining, and multi-stakeholder participation has historically been exceptionally challenging. A key issue for development is that the complex relationships between geopolitics, internet governance, legal systems, data analytics, media/ journalism, and basic human rights like free expression and privacy remain poorly understood and badly integrated, especially in the Global South, where information disorder is much less studied. Information disorder is not bounded by the state, nor by language or platform, and toxic information can travel at an accelerating rate around the world through communities of shared interests (linguistic, diaspora, social, political), skewing facts and distorting truth. This study maps efforts currently underway in the Global South to counter information disorder by identifying key actors and stakeholders, and establishing the most important research questions for an ongoing developmental agenda that links the fight against information disorder with the building of sustainable, independent media in the Global South. As a vital democratic institution, a credible, trusted, viable media is central to the deepening of democracy in these regions, in line with Goal 16 of the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): “Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels.” 1.2 PREVALENCE IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH In the Global South, journalism has always been contested terrain: prone to manipulation, state ownership, censorship, and patrimonial I N FO R M ATI O N D I SO R D ER IN THE GLOBA L SOUTH relationships between journalists and political elites. In these contexts, alternative communication networks have often fulfilled a progressive function. Humor, ridicule, gossip, and jokes have been integral to anti-colonial struggles in Africa; orality has been a feature of communication in the Arab world; and popular cultural forms like music and satire have fulfilled journalistic functions in contexts of oppression (Bebawi 2022; Ellis 1989; Mano 2007). Contemporary practices associated with information disorder therefore often map onto older social forms in these regions. More recently, however, concerns have been growing about a perceived high exposure to especially digital disinformation and its impact on often fragile democratic environments in the Global South. Survey research shows, for instance, that perceived exposure to fabricated political news stories in African countries is even higher than in the USA (Wasserman and Madrid-Morales 2019). Extreme speech is another major issue across the Global South, often with historical antecedents in colonialism (Udupa, Gagliardone, and Hervik 2021). Political and social polarizations within highly economically unequal societies are amplified on social and mobile media platforms, which are aggressively pushed by big tech companies that view the Global South as a lucrative emerging market. The Covid-19 pandemic has exacerbated both the spread of harmful disinformation and increased pressure on independent news outlets in the region. As this report shows, local political leaders have appealed to long-standing anti-Western sentiments by laying claim to indigenous knowledge while contributing to information disorder. This includes alternative treatments for Covid-19, such as steaming (Tanzania), a toxic local root (Kyrgyzstan), and a variety of “cures” in Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, and elsewhere. Rumors about contaminated facemasks that have been sent to “destabilize Africa” (BBC 2020), or claims that Bill Gates would be testing vaccines in Africa (Cowan 2020), are further indications of how information disorder in these regions often draw on longstanding anti-Western bias. These tropes are also reminders that Covid-19 is not the first pandemic to ravage Africa: they are reminiscent of claims Introduction – 1 2