enthusiasm over the revolutionary potential of online media for development and social change. Other inherent problems in social media which mitigate the potential for sustainable social change are the creation of weak ties that prevent sustainable organization-building, and low-risk participation that has little impact or may wither under pressure. Digital technologies can also be used by the opponents Digital technologies can also of social change, who may be used by the opponents employ them for surveillance, disinformation, and repression. of social change, who may The most important reason, employ them for surveillance, however, why the optimism disinformation, and repression. around the democratic and development potential of new digital communication technologies has been receding is the sobering reality of a growing information disorder. Digital platforms are seen as central to information disorder, with social media being seen as the breeding ground for disinformation, racism, xenophobia, and misogyny, a situation which is especially virulent in postcolonial contexts marked by social polarization, ethnic tensions, and economic inequality. Central to media development strategies is the assumption that a strong, independent, and viable media is vital for democracy. From this perspective, information disorder poses a double threat: not only is the public sphere awash with false, confusing, or unverified information, but this contamination of the online public sphere has happened in parallel with a financial and political crisis affecting traditional, quality, fact-checked news sources. The sustainability of ethical, independent, and trustworthy news media is especially important in the Global South as a bulwark against state propaganda and attempts by authoritarian states to obstruct the free flow of information and critical journalism. Broadcast and print media outlets in the Global South had been suffering from the collapse of advertising markets and struggling to adapt to the challenges of internet media even before the Covid-19 pandemic struck. The pandemic has, however, further eroded the revenue base of many news outlets around the world, with subsequent job losses and closures of news outlets often disproportionally impacting on smaller independent and community newspapers in the Global South. In addition to these economic pressures, the Covid-19 pandemic has also brought a resurgence of censorship and control by governments in the Global South, which have used disinformation I N FO R M ATI O N D I SO R D ER IN THE GLOBA L SOUTH around the pandemic as a smokescreen to intensify their repressive tactics. Media development efforts in the Global South will therefore increasingly have to focus not only on the economic viability of media across the region, but also on their ability to withstand political pressures. At the same time, the limits of journalism to counter information disorder should also be recognized. Journalism is not exempt from contributing to information disorder, especially when journalism becomes politicized, as the Latin American regional report of this study has made especially clear. Journalism should therefore remain subject to critique, journalists should be included in critical literacy efforts, and media outlets should remain the focal points of development efforts. In politically fragile settings across the Global South, information disorder presents an especially dangerous and vexing challenge. Even in countries where ostensibly democratic systems are in place, there has been an authoritarian creep, as governments have clamped down on media criticism and citizen protest by shutting down the internet for prolonged periods, creating the space for rumors and unverified information to thrive. Although access to the internet has long been one of the goals of media development efforts, access and participation online also have a dark side. In contexts where access to the internet is limited, many people may still belong to messaging groups that require low data usage (for example WhatsApp); they thus have the power to share and spread false information, making economic, social, and political fragility even more severe. Owing to media capture or weak journalistic institutions, traditional media outlets can accelerate, rather than mitigate, the spread of false information. Likewise, the fragilities of government institutions and the frayed social fabric in these settings mean that efforts to respond to information disorder give rise to censorship and the infringement of freedom of expression. Solutions like “fake news” bills, bounded by narrow state interests, actually result in the crushing of free expression at the behest of authoritarians. Even where legislative attempts to curb information disorder might be well intentioned, for instance to protect citizens from harmful Covid-19-related messages, measures such as the criminalization of disinformation may hamper the free flow of information and be used for unscrupulous ends. Not only is there a paucity of research on information disorder in Global South contexts, but Introduction – 1 1