MOBILE PHONES, INTERNET, AND GENDER IN MYANMAR MOBILE PHONES, INTERNET, AND GENDER IN MYANMAR 4.2.1 Role of religious values in shaping social expectations 4.2.2 Gender roles in Myanmar Theravada Buddhism is the dominant (state) religion in Myanmar, with the majority of people in Myanmar following this religion. Buddhists are expected to follow five Precepts (e.g. no killing, no stealing) and to show respect to the five Infinite Venerables, made up of the Three Jewels (Buddha, Dhamma [teachings], Sangha [community of monks]) along with parents and teachers (Figure 11). In this form of Buddhism, everyone (parents, teachers, children, husbands, wives, etc.) has predetermined roles they are expected to fulfill. The ultimate aim is to create good karma through actions, and any deviation from this has a negative impact on the family’s honour and reputation and ultimately leads to bad karma—an undesirable outcome. Moderator: “Have you encountered/ witnessed/ heard of any gender discrimination?” Respondent: “No.” Moderator: “How about at home, does your brother get more priority over you?” Respondent: “Actually, yes. Mother gives more priority to him than me.” While Buddhists are expected to show respect/ humility and obedience to all of the five Infinite Venerables, next to the Buddha, parents are the most important in life. Looking after one’s parents is a key part of the ‘children’s role’. Even in affluent families, children send money and buy gifts for their parents. The well-being of the family (and extended family who typically live in the same household) is also a priority in most people’s lives. Families (including those living away from home) come together at least four times a year for religious festivities and other family celebrations in Myanmar. Therefore, the need for families to be in touch for planning is high. Supporting the Sangha (community of monks) is also a key priority. Female mobile owner, 19, SEC C, Yangon Urban female, 46, non-mobile owner Source: MSR Figure 11 Five Infinite Venerables and Precepts in Theravada Buddhism Theravada Buddhism 5 Infinite Venerables 24 “I haven’t experienced any different treatment of males and females. If they would do I would complain. The only difference is that we can’t become a Buddha. Women are also leaders.” 5 Precepts No killing No stealing No lying No adultery No intoxication of mind Buddha Dhamma Sangha Parents Teachers Prescribed gender roles in Myanmar govern how Myanmar society functions. Men are expected to fulfill the role of the family head, responsible for breadwinning and family leadership, and they also take the lead on matters outside the home. Women are expected to play a nurturing role, looking after the family and elders/ageing parents, and putting the needs of others before their own. These roles are taught to children at an early age and are reinforced in school education and textbooks (Figure 12). Both men and women see these as their ‘duty’ and (older) women specifically do not see this as discrimination in any way. Females cannot become a Buddha according to Theravada Buddhism; therefore, males have a more important position in society and tend to be favoured over females. However, many women in the qualitative research seemed to accept this and take it for granted, to the extent that some may not even perceive it as gender discrimination. The younger generation is somewhat torn between their traditional role, which includes obedience to parents and social norms, and experimenting with new ways of communication with the opposite sex, including social media. Access to ‘modern’ influences (fashion, celebrity lifestyles, dating, etc.) through mobiles and social media is challenging traditional gender roles. Changing work environments (longer opening hours, increased urban migration, more female entrepreneurs, etc.) requiring greater flexibility and mobility are also having an impact on gender roles. Some respondents noted that gender roles are becoming more flexible as more women continue their education and leave the home to work. In some households encountered in the qualitative research, women were the main breadwinners and men in the household helped out with domestic chores. 25