MOBILE PHONES, INTERNET, AND GENDER IN MYANMAR 3 MOBILE PHONES, INTERNET, AND GENDER IN MYANMAR Gender & ICTs: A brief overview A vast body of empirical research has shown many positive impacts of mobile phones and mobile communication. At a macro-level, the impact of mobile penetration on economic growth has been proven.21 At a micro-level, simply providing network coverage22 has been shown to have positive impacts on individual and market outcomes, as have specific mobile-based interventions.23 Interestingly, it has been shown that rolling out mobile phone networks is the most powerful development ‘intervention’ since it facilitates better communication, increases access to information, allows users to coordinate better and markets to function more smoothly, and ultimately improves people’s livelihoods. Targeted mobile services and applications (agricultural price information apps, etc.) also have an impact, although it is more difficult to generalise the evidence.24 If it is accepted that ICTs have a positive effect on income and poverty alleviation, women’s disparate access to ICTs could magnify existing inequalities and leave them increasingly marginalised “from the economic, social and political mainstream of their countries and of the world.”25 Clearly, the extent of these disparities needs to be measured before they can be remedied. A significant amount of empirical evidence points to major differences between men and women in the volume, frequency, and quality of ICT access, particularly among those in developing countries. GSMA’s Connected Women programme recently conducted a multi-country study to measure the mobile gender gap in low- and middle-income countries (see Box 1). The study showed that the gender gap varies between countries, and affordability is a key barrier to women owning mobile phones. LIRNEasia’s Teleuse@BOP research in Asia has similarly shown wide gender gaps in mobile ownership, especially in South Asian countries.26 Other research in low- and middle-income countries also indicates lower levels of ICT knowledge and usage among women than men. 21. For example, Roeller and Waverman, 2001; Waverman, Meschi and Fuss, 2005; Kathuria, Uppal and Mamta, 2009 22. For example, Jensen, 2007; Aker, 2010, etc. 23. For example, Camacho and Conover, 2011 24. Samarajiva, Stork, Kapugama, Zuhyle and Senaratne Perera, 2013 25. Hafkin and Taggart, 2001, p. 7 26. Zainudeen, Iqbal and Samarajiva, 2010 14 It is important to understand the factors associated with, and perhaps even underlying, these gender disparities. Research in Africa has (quantitatively) shown that gender disparities in ICT access reflect other socio-economic disparities; women are often poorer and less educated than their male counterparts and have less access to essential services that are often complementary to ICT use, such as electricity.27 When these socio-economic variables are controlled for, often in the African countries studied, there is no apparent effect of “gender” on access per se, or as Gillwald et al28 put it, “women with similar income, education, employment status, etc. will be as likely to have a mobile phone as men. However, these influencing factors differ for women and therefore mobile phone usage is not equally accessible.” Much of the empirical evidence on internet use in developed markets also shows this.29 Many factors have been identified as influencing the gap in ICT adoption between men and women. The most significant deciding factor in whether or not a mobile phone is purchased is usually income. Many households in low-income markets strive to have at least one handset with an active SIM, but it tends to be owned by a man in the household because his need for a mobile phone takes precedence over a woman’s access to one. Policy interventions are needed that would allow women and girls to enjoy the benefits of ICTs equally. However, many of the barriers for women relate to cultural norms and practices that are difficult to legislate away.32 The reality is that most women are not on par with men in terms of income, education, and employment status. In many developing countries, men are considered the breadwinners who leave the house to work, while women are expected to stay at home to care for the family. Since they spend the bulk of their time at home, there is a perception that it is less important for a woman to have her own mobile phone. This, coupled with generally lower levels of income, formal education and ICT literacy, also supports the perception that a mobile phone is not an important tool for women to have access to. In countries and regions where gender inequalities are more acute (e.g. many in the Middle East and some in South Asia30), there may be strong cultural barriers that further restrict women’s access to ICTs (as well as education and income-earning opportunities).31 27. Muller, 2009 28. Gillwald, Milek and Stork, 2011; p.18 29. For example, Bimber, 2000; Rice and Katz, 2003; Wasserman and Richmond-Abbott, 2005 30. http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/table-4-gender-inequality-index 31. As prior GSMA research has shown. See GSMA Connected Women and Altai Consulting, 2015; also see Buskens and Webb, 2014 32. See Gillwald, Milek, and Stork 15