Contents EXECUTIVE SUMMARY..........................................................................................1 To the Myanmar Government........................................................................................................ 6 End Impunity and Protect Freedom of Expression.......................................................... 6 Law Reform........................................................................................................................................ 7 Counter Hate Speech in the Lead Up to the 2020 Elections......................................... 7 To the Myanmar Military................................................................................................................. 8 To Civil Society..................................................................................................................................... 8 To the International Community ................................................................................................. 8 To Social Media Platforms, Telecommunication Companies, and Other Businesses Operating in Myanmar.............................................................................................. 9 OBJECTIVE, SCOPE, AND METHODOLOGY......................................................11 A. Objectives and Scope.........................................................................................................12 B. Methodology........................................................................................................................12 C. Definition of Hate Speech for the Purposes of This Report..................................13 BACKGROUND: HISTORY OF HATE SPEECH IN MYANMAR........................15 A. Historical Entrenchment of Division...........................................................................16 Colonial Legacy.................................................................................................................................... 17 Military Rule Post-independence................................................................................................. 18 B. Exploiting Race and Religion During Myanmar’s Transition..............................21 The Rise of Social Media Since 2010 and Pathways to Violence.................................... 22 C. Current Context: From the 2015 Elections to the Upcoming 2020 Elections................................................................................................................................28 Growing Ultranationalist Support for the Tatmadaw......................................................... 29 2020 Elections...................................................................................................................................... 35 ANALYSIS: CURRENT LANDSCAPE OF HATE SPEECH IN MYANMAR.......37 A. Key Narratives of Hate and Ultranationalism...........................................................38 Exploiting an Environment of Prejudice and Fear................................................................ 38 Constructed Narratives.................................................................................................................... 39 A Buddhist-Burman nation under threat.............................................................................. 39 The particular threat of Islam.................................................................................................... 43 Gendered framing and derogatory attacks.......................................................................... 46 The necessity of Myanmar’s military strength................................................................... 47 Human rights defenders and journalists in Myanmar as traitors.............................. 48 Biased international community ............................................................................................. 52