unidentifiable non-state actors, there are cases such as that of Khalid Ismath, in which the report against him was made by an individual who serves in the Royal Palace.92 Until the recent case of an arrest for online threats against Siti Kassim,93 a prominent human rights lawyer and activist, internet users were largely allowed to threaten activists and other internet users with impunity. Comments calling for individuals like women human rights defenders (WHRDs) to be raped, killed or subjected to acid attacks94 were common, with no actions taken against those issuing the threats. In some cases, the threat goes beyond social media posts in the public sphere and extends to private messages sent to HRDs. In the run-up to the Bersih 5 rally in 2016, several individuals affiliated with Bersih were sent a series of images based on a video of an execution by the socalled Islamic State.95 Without a substantial change to the status quo relating to WHRDs, they will constantly be subjected to this additional element of danger and threats from non-state actors due to their gender, on top of the criminalisation of freedom of expression by the state. It is noted that the Royal Malaysian Police is seemingly altering its stance on the matter and investigating reports made by activists regarding online comments that threaten their personal safety. It remains to be seen whether the initial actions of arresting individuals making death threats online will be followed by legal actions and sanctions. Beyond the threats made against activists or other individuals, targeted attacks against communities are growing more common in Malaysia. One example would be the attacks faced by Sisters in Islam, such as frequent blog posts that demonise them or classify them as deviants.96 Other common forms of attack are those faced by LGBTIQ activists. 92 An office that traditionally does not have any executive power but exercises substantial influence on selected matters. 93 Zack, J. (2017, 26 July). Cops arrest man who threatened to behead Kasim. The Star Online. www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2017/07/26/ cops-arrest-man-who-threatened-to-behead-siti-kasim 94 Malay Mail Online. (2017, 24 July). Lawyer Siti Kasim says getting death, rape threats. Malay Mail Online. www.themalaymailonline. com/malaysia/article/lawyer-siti-kasim-says-getting-death-rapethreats#x5TUO9oezOyZmI8J.97 95 Alhadjri, A. (2016, 18 October). Maria Chin, Ambiga to lodge report over death threat, say image is ‘too much’. Malaysia Kini. www. malaysiakini.com/news/359435 96 Searches on the subject of Sisters in Islam and alleged deviant practices would usually result in several blog posts condemning the NGO as deviants in line with the claims of state religious authorities. For example: https://al-faedah.blogspot.my/2014/11/ siapa-sis-sisters-in-islam.html; https://al-faedah.blogspot. my/2014/11/siapa-sis-sisters-in-islam.html Recent examples include the online witch-hunt against the organiser of a pride event in May 2017. An individual perceived as the organiser had his photo shared on a website that was notorious for demonising LGBTIQ communities.97 Another activist who has in the past spoken up against the attacks against and demonisation of LGBTIQ activists also had his information listed publicly on the website, which resulted in individuals approaching his family home and threatening his personal safety. Due to the threats posed against him, the activist was forced to temporarily relocate out of fear for his own safety. Apart from attacks against known or perceived activists, other individuals are also often exposed to online violence. In March 2017, a teenage girl was attacked online for a sign she had carried in a march, expressing her aspiration to become the first woman prime minister of Malaysia.98 Unfortunately, there is a trend of cyberbullying and online violence that is growing in Malaysia, with little to no criminal action taken against perpetrators. The predicament faced at this juncture is a curious one, as Section 233 of the Communications and Multimedia Act 1998 was initially implemented to prevent and criminalise such behaviours, but has not been utilised in a manner conducive to reducing and mitigating cyberbullying and online violence. Future violations through draft laws At the time of writing in August 2017, there were two known laws affecting freedom of expression in Malaysia. Amendments to the Sedition Act 1948 were passed and gazetted in June 2015. Fortunately, the amendments are not yet in force, despite having appeared in the Federal Gazette.99 While there has been no resistance or challenges against the legitimacy of applying the Sedition Act 1948 online, the amendments included the addition of the term “by electronic means” among other additions to the law, such as as heavier penalties and an alteration of the definition of “seditious” statements under the Act. On finer inspection, the Sedition Act 1948 now criminalises propagation of a seditious comment or causing a seditious comment to be published as an offence. Furthermore, in the event where a seditious comment is published through electronic 97 Menara.my. (2017, 13 June). Iftar GAY terbesar Malaysia – Numan Afifi. Menara.my. www.menara.my/ iftar-gay-terbesar-malaysia-numan-afifi 98 Joint Action Group for Gender Equality (JAG). (2017, 15 March). JAG condemns online attack on #WomensMarchKL. Malaysia Kini. https://m.malaysiakini.com/letters/375734 99 A1485, 4 June 2015. MALAYSIA / 93