deaths. Around 70,000 people – five times more than commonly reported – may have been killed in Yemen since January 2016, according to new statistics. ProHouthi and pro-Saudi social media narratives have each sought to discredit the other in a process of vigorous contestation. There has also been an escalation of clashes between southern secessionist fighters and Hadi-aligned forces, as well as unprecedented violence between ISIS and al-Qaeda factions in Bayda province. Insecurity continues unabated in Pakistan, where religious minorities, politicians and security forces continue to be targeted by Islamist militants. The Pakistani Taliban and ISIS affiliates failed to derail parliamentary elections in July but killed hundreds of civilians, including 149 in Mastung, Baluchistan – the country’s second deadliest attack by extremists to date. In response, security personnel continue to perpetrate a range of abuses, including against civilians. Owing to suppression of traditional journalism by government authorities and militants alike, social media plays a significant role in reporting on such issues. In May, following the overturning of a high-profile blasphemy charge against Asia Bibi, massive demonstrations led by clerics erupted across the country, calling for her death. In February 2019, the government announced plans to crack down on extremism and hate speech on social media, which feed into the broader atmosphere of discrimination and intolerance towards Bibi, a Christian, as well as other religious minorities. Discord persists between Libya’s rival governments, backed by loyal or loosely affiliated militias and autonomous armed groups battling one another. After formidable territorial gains throughout 2018, the selfstyled Libyan National Army, led by Khalifa Haftar, advanced on Tripoli in April 2019 intending to capture the city from the UN-backed Government of National Accord. Haftar’s all-out push for military victory raises the stakes for all parties and risks skyrocketing casualties and other human rights abuses that have long been perpetrated by armed groups with impunity. Facebook and Twitter have become significant online battlefields, where adversaries – including many pro-Haftar bots – weaponize photos and video footage. In Libya’s south, Tebu, Tuareg, and Arab armed groups continue to fight over territory and resources. While weakened, ISIS and al-Qaedalinked fighters seek to regain influence. While the April 2018 arrival of reformist Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed has given rise to optimism, 6 Ethiopia faces dire challenges. Ahmed has released thousands of political prisoners, invited former rebel groups to dialogue, and lifted severe restrictions on the country’s television and online media landscape. Yet freeing up political space has energized power struggles between dominant ethnic groups who stand to benefit or lose from wide-ranging reforms. With little constraint on expression of grievances, proliferation of extreme views on social media risks inflaming ethnic violence. In the south, deadly conflict between ethnic Oromo and Somalis intensified, as did clashes between armed groups and the army in the west. Some opposition groups returning from Eritrea have failed to disarm, attacking military and civilian targets and triggering intercommunal violence, notably among Guji and Gedeo. More people were internally displaced in Ethiopia in 2018 than in any other country, totalling nearly 3 million according to some estimates. Rising threats The civilian death toll in Afghanistan reached an alltime yearly high in 2018, with 3,804 killed and another 7,189 injured. Fighting spiked between the government – supported by international forces – and armed groups, with government-controlled territory shrinking to its lowest level since the fall of the Taliban in 2001. To counter this discouraging picture, the Afghan Ministry of Defence publishes on its Twitter feed the daily number of Taliban fighters killed or captured. The Taliban, in turn, widely use WhatsApp and Twitter to recruit, plan and claim responsibility for attacks, and fundraise. Civilians continue to be victimized by security personnel and targeted by both Taliban and ISIS insurgents, who have also engaged in fighting with each another. Bombings and other attacks have struck hotels and schools, including numerous polling stations during the October parliamentary elections, with the Hazara Shi’a minority specifically targeted. The Taliban entered into peace talks with US officials in October, but has derived leverage through stepped-up offensives likely to surge further if talks collapse. Throughout 2018 conflict wore on in the CAR between largely Muslim ex-Séléka rebels and mainly Christian anti-balaka militias, who have fought since 2013. Hate speech and incitement on social media have played a significant role in fuelling inter-communal bloodshed. Within the past year, between 70 and 80 Peoples under Threat 2019