Myanmar Media Historically and the Challenges of Transition 11 and Mancini 2012, p. 251). Sen (2002) argues that the liberalization of the broadcast sector was one of the seeds of the political transition in Indonesia, which political economists have often attributed to the 1997 financial crisis. During Soeharto’s authoritarian rule, this liberalization of the broadcast sector benefited his family and cronies but also weakened state control of information and news and thus expanded the space for media to function as agents of change (Sen 2002, p. 85). In the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, Price (2009) found two major influences on the direction of media reform: accession to the European Union and its requirements for regional standardization, and the impact of privatization and private forces, factors he argued were far more important than large-scale media development assistance from the United States and Europe. Nevertheless, media assistance can provide an important impetus for change, with a number of large foundations, organizations and governments often dedicating funds towards media development and reform. Much media assistance focuses on the journalism sector and reforming the legal framework to accommodate the shift from the predominantly government-owned or -controlled media to public (especially in the broadcast sector) or independent private media and self-regulatory mechanisms (Price and Krug 2000; Kumar 2006). Other key initiatives include building professionalism among journalists, supporting media associations and providing funds to set up independent media outlets. The media development “industry” is largely motivated by the belief that a free and independent media environment is key to democratizing society, especially in improving public participation in political and public processes. How these dynamics have shaped historic media development work in Myanmar is discussed by Jane Madlyn McElhone and Lisa Brooten in this volume. Grass Roots Change Agents Other uses of media as agents of change include myriad grass-roots efforts to create alternative venues for expression, especially given the incredible technological changes that have recently made participation more accessible, including artistic performances, visual arts and other various forms of locally produced media. These locally produced 01 ch1-MyanmarMediaIT-5P.indd 11 8/4/19 10:29 am