neighbourhoods being serviced by informal recycling services collecting bottles, scrap metal and paper. Underdeveloped waste management systems in Myanmar – especially outside of urban areas 199 – are unequipped to deal with electronic waste. Electronic waste (e-waste) can be defined as “all types of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) and its parts that have been discarded by the owner as waste without the intention of re-use”. 200 There are some markets, such as Yangon’s 28th Street, trading in electronic waste then used to refurbish devices or sold for raw materials. In some cases, supplying these markets can be dangerous for so called ‘garbage hunters’ or ‘pickers’ who are involved in the salvage process. In the informal sector, the extraction of valuable materials or components from discarded ICTs is done without proper training or protection, exposing individuals to serious health risks. Mobile phones, tablets, laptops, desktop computers, and other consumer electronics contain a variety of toxic substances ranging from heavy metals (lead, mercury, arsenic, nickel, cadmium) and plastics such as PVC that emit dioxin when burned. 201 Human exposure to these substances can result in damage to the brain, kidneys, and liver, severe allergic reactions, and cancer. Handset use is increasing. The MCIT hopes to achieve 80% mobile penetration by 2016. With a population of 51.4 million, this would imply over 40 million mobile phone users in Myanmar. This increase in handsets and other ICT equipment will require the development of formal waste management processes for e-waste, including enhanced regulations and training for individuals participating in the informal sector. Estimates by the United Nations’ STEP Initiative note that Myanmar generated 29 metric kilotonnes of e-waste in 2014, which excludes any waste that has been exported to Myanmar from other countries. 202 E-waste can also involve foreign countries shipping their own electronic waste abroad. This trend has been documented in developed countries, where e-waste is often exported to developing countries under the guise of ‘recycling’ due to weaker environmental regulation, cheap labour, and lack of export controls over sending e-waste abroad. 203 Exported waste can contaminate land and groundwater. Official current data on e-waste exported to Myanmar is not readily available. A 2007 report by the United Nations Environment Programme noted that 90% of the then 20-50 million tonnes generated every year is sent to Bangladesh, China, India, Myanmar, and Pakistan. 204 Environmental Impact from Towers Mobile network operators require consistent power to operate their networks, as base transceiver stations (BTS) located at tower sites must be powered on 24 hours a day, 365 199 Yangon City Development Committee announced the privatisation of trash collection services in 2015, see Myanmar Times “Trash Talk“ (15 December 2014). 200 See STEP Initiative, “What is E-Waste?” (last accessed August 2015). 201 See Basel Action Network, “Exporting Harm : The High Tech Trashing of Asia” (2002), pg 9. 202 See Overview of E-Waste Information for Myanmar at www.step-initiative.org/Overview_Myanmar.html 203 Ibid pg 8. See also, The Guardian “Toxic e-waste dumped in poor nations, says United Nations” (2013). 204 See, United Nations Environment Programme, “Geo 4: Global Environment Outlook” (2007), pg 225. CHAPTER 3: SECTOR-LEVEL IMPACTS 113 3