These abuses were especially evident in the repression of the rights to freedom of expression, peaceful assembly and association. Political activities were often suppressed, media was heavily censored and public gatherings were either severely restricted or banned outright. The authorities used the law not only to limit any public discussion and debate but also to greatly restrict the flow of information, both within the country and to and from the outside world. Political arrests were a major tool of repression, used to suppress criticism of the government, its policies and practices. Thousands of people – political activists, members of political parties, journalists, writers, lawyers, Buddhist monks and nuns, teachers, academics and others – were arrested, detained, prosecuted and imprisoned. Although patterns of arrest and imprisonment changed over time, and despite the sporadic releases of political prisoners, the overall climate of repression remained largely the same. 10 Broadly worded laws restricting the rights to freedom of expression, peaceful assembly and association were used to charge and sentence political detainees to years of imprisonment. It is important to note that many of these laws still stand. Trials resulting from these political arrests routinely failed to meet international fair trial standards. Political detainees were often tried in closed courts, without access to legal representation, and without time to prepare a proper defence. These trials were often summary and concluded within a very short period of time. Many political detainees were unable to call witnesses or to appeal against their convictions. In particular, the independence of the judiciary was seriously compromised in political cases by means of intimidation and other pressures from the military. 11 Torture and other ill-treatment of prisoners – including political prisoners – was institutionalized. Amnesty International received consistent reports of political prisoners being shackled in their cells, deprived of light, held in stress positions for extended periods of time, denied medicine, food, exercise and water for washing, and held for long periods in small cells, some of which are intended for dogs. Some female political prisoners were subjected to sexual violence, including rape, sexual assault, threats of rape, sexual harassment, and sexualized torture, while in prison.12 High profile activists or those seen as “threats” were often held in solitary confinement.13 Some prisoners were sent to carry out forced labour in work camps, often in conditions which constituted cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment. Many did not survive.14 Conditions in detention were poor, characterized by overcrowding, lack of proper food, clean drinking water, proper sanitation and access to adequate medical care and treatment. Many detainees died – either as a result of torture and other ill-treatment, or because they were denied adequate medical treatment. 15 Yet those responsible were rarely held to account, entrenching a climate of impunity in Myanmar which still persists. minorities: Targets of repression (Index: ASA 16/014/2001), 12 June 2001; Exodus from the Shan State (Index: ASA 16/011/2000) 9 July 2000; Ethnic minority rights under attack (Index: ASA 16/020/1997), 21 July 1997; “No place to hide”: Killings, abductions and other abuses against ethnic Karen villagers and refugees (Index: ASA 16/013/1995), 5 June 1995; and Human rights violations against Muslims in the Rakhine (Arakan) State (Index: ASA 16/006/1992), 30 April 1992. 10 See Amnesty International: Myanmar: Update on political arrests and trials (Index: ASA 16/046/1996), 31 August 1996; Myanmar: Prisoners of political repression, (Index: ASA 16/006/2001), 17 April 2001; Myanmar’s political prisoners: A growing legacy of injustice (Index: ASA 16/019/2005), 15 June 2005; Myanmar: No return to normal (Index: ASA 16/037/2007), November 2007. 11 See Amnesty International, Myanmar: “In the national interest”: Prisoners of conscience, torture, summary trials under martial law (Index: ASA 16/010/1990), 7 November 1990; Myanmar (Burma): Unfair political trials (Index: ASA 16/06/91), September 1991; Myanmar: “No law at all”: Human rights violations under military rule (Index: ASA 16/011/1992), 30 September 1992; Myanmar: Human rights after seven years of military rule (Index: ASA 16/23/95), October 1995; and Myanmar: Justice on trial (Index ASA 16/019/2003), 30 July 2003. 12 See Burmese Women's Union & Assistance Association for Political Prisoners (Burma), Women political prisoners in Burma, Joint Report, September 2014; and Asia Justice and Rights (AJAR), Opening the Box: Women’s Experiences of War, Peace, and Impunity in Myanmar, September 2015. 13 Amnesty International, The institution of torture (Index: ASA 16/24/00), December 2000; and Myanmar: “No law at all”: Human rights violations under military rule (Index: ASA 16/011/1992), 30 September 1992. 14 See Amnesty International, Myanmar: A challenge for the international community (Index: ASA 16/ 028/1997), November 1997; and Myanmar: Conditions in prisons and labour camps (Index: ASA 16/022/1995), 21 September 1995. 15 Amnesty International, The institution of torture (Index: ASA 16/24/00), December 2000; and Myanmar 1988 to 1998 Happy Anniversary? Death in Custody (Index: ASA 16/016/1998), 29 May 1998. NEW EXPRESSION MEETS OLD REPRESSION ENDING THE CYCLE OF POLITICAL ARRESTS AND IMPRISONMENT IN MYANMAR Amnesty International 12