These phenomena might intersect with peacebuilding or conflict mitigation priorities. Weaponization issues also increase exposure to other risks and vulnerabilities. Examples include if vulnerable displaced populations in need of humanitarian assistance are inundated with intentionally misleading information about life-saving services and resources, or if weaponization-related attacks lead to negative coping mechanisms such as self-isolation. Operational Implications Weaponization phenomena also affect civil society organizations’ ability to effectively implement programs across a range of work areas, such as:    when misinformation erodes situational awareness damaging critical systems or relationships that are vital for communicating or for coordinating resource distribution diverting attention and/or resources Development work to improve the functioning of state institutions, for example, can be undermined by political disinformation campaigns that sow discord about the impartiality of state institutions. The prevalence of misinformation on social media has significant implications for refugees and asylum seekers, placing them at increased risk of violence and exploitation. Impacts on the viability of existing humanitarian programming due to the evolution of these threats has prompted some organizations to integrate social media strategies and platforms alongside traditional humanitarian programming.72 Security implications Humanitarian, development and peacebuilding organizations have been targets of coordinated disinformation operations and other kinds of social-media related information attacks that have significant security implications in highly fragile contexts. Research in the context of Syria provides an example whereby coordinated and deliberate online defamation campaigns significantly delegitimize the White Helmets’ status in an attempt to make them a legitimate target for kinetic attacks and undermine their capacities to serve affected populations. Although security examples that have proven disastrous for humanitarian, development and peacebuilding organizations are rare, many have faced at least minor adverse impacts by unintentional misinformation, or an intentionally defamatory social media campaign. This warrants that organizations focus on the importance of social media threats vis a vis conventional security and strategic communications verticals. Interaction’s Disinformation Toolkit (2018), CDAC Network’s Rumor Has It report (2017), and Tactical Tech’s Holistic Security Manual are excellent strategic resources for thinking about context analysis, risk assessment and threat modeling approaches in this regard. Exposure to unintended harm Populations affected by complex humanitarian emergencies and situations of armed conflict are particularly vulnerable to digital threats and risks, as refugees, besieged populations and other marginalized communities increasingly rely on modern information systems and digital platforms to meet their basic needs. Coupled with a concerted effort in the humanitarian sector to deploy ever more information-based 72 See for example www.refugee.info MERCY CORPS The Weaponization of Social Media: How social media can spark violence and what can be done about it 25