the media, because the media is ultimately the fourth estate of our democracy. So we really need the media to do its job. (interview, 2021) THE IMPACT OF CHANGES IN THE MEDIA LANDSCAPE Constant changes in the information and media ecosystem creates uncertainty and challenges for journalists and mainstream media, including newspapers, TV, and radio. They are faced with a changing landscape that requires them to evolve their processes and techniques in order to stay ahead of the curve (Posetti and Matthews 2018). The structure of the media industry is changing, with the demarcation between mainstream media and digital media becoming less clear, to the point where the two fields sometimes even converge. This has brought more competition to the industry, pushing some journalists and media organizations to prioritize fast outputs over quality journalism (Lăzăroiu 2009). Dulamkhorloo Baatar noted that “even professional journalists are increasingly not provided with enough time to cross check” (interview, 2021). Traditional media can be far too slow in understanding the changes that need to be made for journalists to do their work. As H. R. Venkatesh explained, the media do not realize that the information landscape has shifted and there is a very real need for fact checks that are geared specifically to disinformation or misinformation. That’s why we have these fact-checking organizations come up; there was a real opportunity for them to come up because they were essentially servicing a need that was not being fulfilled by traditional media organizations. (interview, 2021) The need to maintain a readership or viewership by grabbing the attention of the public through sensational news items, which is generally linked to the erosion of media ethics, also has a role to play. This has demotivated journalists and encouraged them to look for more financially lucrative and exciting work opportunities outside of mainstream media organizations. As media organizations struggle to survive, they also face problems with talent retention. Prabesh Subedi of the Digital Media Foundation in Nepal explained: Now, journalists do not enjoy the walk-in media houses, because pay is low and job security is not that sustainable. So they [want] to start their own projects (with two or three journalists). I N FO R M ATI O N D I SO R D ER IN THE GLOBA L SOUTH They start their own YouTube channel, they [launch] their own newspaper portal. That’s why the big media institutions [are lacking] in quality manpower, and that is also contributing to [traditional media] producing low-quality content. (interview, 2021) Similarly, Needrup Zangpo spoke about how the Bhutan Media Foundation is “finding it very difficult to pay the staff. Talented people come in, they test the waters for some time, and [then] they feel quite insecure and they leave” (interview, 2021). THREATS BY GOVERNMENTS, REGULATORY PRESSURES, AND RESTRICTIONS Governments in Asian countries tend to use both direct and indirect ways to restrict access to information and limit the ability of journalists and media to bring correct information to the public. This can take the form of laws and regulations, bullying and intimidation, or restrictions on access to information (Haciyakupoglu et al. 2021). The overall impact of legislation, regulations, and the political environment on information disorder has been analyzed in various sections of this report. Here the focus will be on the impact of those elements on journalists. Journalists have faced bullying, smear campaigns, and death threats. Media organizations and journalists also tend to get portrayed as “antigovernment” and “anti-nationalistic” when they report news stories that are critical of the government or that tarnish the reputation of rulers of a country (Colomina, Margalef, and Youngs 2021; Vitug 2021). Vadim Sadonshoev, country project director of Internews, mentioned that slander and defamation laws are used in Tajikistan to shut down media, while security services or unknown individuals have threatened and attacked journalists (interview, 2021). Raisa Wickrematunge explained that Himal Southasian had to switch their operational base from Nepal to Sri Lanka due to legal and regulatory pressure in Nepal (interview, 2021) (also see The Hindu 2016; Srinivasan 2016). Yvonne Chua noted that in the Philippines, “attacks on your person or your institution, threats, physical threats or physical harm, and bullying” of journalists are common (interview, 2021). Cheryll Ruth Soriano added Asia – 2 3 4