that is pretty much like the US playbook that Trump pushed. (interview, 2021) LACK OF UNDERSTANDING OF THE MEDIA, INFORMATION MANIPULATION, AND THE INTERNET Many people are not able to distinguish between trusted news sources and official or unofficial campaigns that promote information disorder (Bradshaw and Howard 2017). Therefore, many unknowingly support the spread of mis- or disinformation backed by echo chambers and filter bubbles. This behavior is common across different strata of society. As both Needrup Zangpo, from the Bhutan Media Foundation, and Ankuran Dutta, associate professor and head of the Department of Communication and Journalism of Gauhati University, India, pointed out during their respective interviews, one cannot say that a higher level of education or socio-economic status acts as a deterrent of information disorder (interview, 2021). Jo-Ann Ding mentioned that in Malaysia older generations are influenced by their trust in print media: “Because the older generation are so used to reading the news in print, when it is in written form, somehow it carries weight: ‘Oh, someone took the time to write this down. So it must be true.’” (interview, 2021). Jun Sakamoto posited that there are generational differences in online behavior and in how information disorder is perceived. Younger generations tend to have a better grasp of the differences between various kinds of news creators or sources on social media, whereas older people tend to trust all different types of content creators equally (interview, 2021). In contrast, Yudhanjaya Wijerathne argued that older people tend to have the maturity to understand the possibility of manipulation in a news item they receive, while the younger generations “will instantly respond to something with rage and anger and frustration, and spam that into multiple groups to disseminate that anger and frustration” (interview, 2021). Further, many people from the older generations exhibit the tendency to trust any information they I N FO R M ATI O N D I SO R D ER IN THE GLOBA L SOUTH receive from “trusted sources.” This category can include traditional media, social media platforms, or influencers on social media and, more importantly, specific individuals in a person’s social circle (such as relatives, colleagues, and friends) who are considered to be respected individuals in society. There is also a lack of understanding about the gravity of information disorder and that sharing information without verifying it can lead to negative consequences (Cheng et al. 2020). Pirongrong Ramasoota, professor of communication in the Faculty of Communication Arts at Chulalongkorn University, explained: People are less cautious about sharing disinformation or misinformation in closed circles. Firstly, because they feel that it is a more reliable network of friends or acquaintances. Secondly, because this kind of grouping will tend towards an echo chamber of like-minded individuals, so members tend to be ideologically shaped and biased. (interview, 2021) The Covid-19 pandemic has also brought information disorder to the fore in many public discussions, and the importance of trusted information sources is recognized by many people. The pandemic has stimulated conversations around the process of information evaluation among the public. Prior to the pandemic, the general public had less interest in the topic, as it had less direct impact on their day-to-day lives (Haroon et al. 2021; Nasir, Baequni, and Nurmansyah 2020). But now, as Dilrukshi Handunnetti from Sri Lanka stated, a larger portion of the population is beginning to pay attention to the topic, as information disorder related to Covid-19 can lead to life-or-death situations (interview, 2021). 4.8 THE ROLE OF JOURNALISTS AND MAINSTREAM MEDIA Mainstream media play both an active and a passive role in the dissemination and amplification of information disorder (Schuldt 2021). (Their role as sources of information disorder has been discussed earlier in this report.) As Gehan Gunatilleke from Sri Lanka stressed: We do have genuinely bad behavior that can be attributed to mainstream media channels. They have been disseminators of fake news and disinformation on numerous occasions. And I think that could disrupt our trust in the media over the long term. The citizen needs to be able to trust Asia – 2 3 3