to “information disorder”; therefore, no studies come up on Google Scholar when searching for ‫يتامولعملا بارضالاو يتامولعملا للخلا‬. At a geographical level, fake news in some countries, such as Yemen, Somalia, Mauritania, Djibouti, and Comoros, is not addressed here. The fact that this literature review does not include any studies from the latter four countries is due to the fact that the researchers were not able to search for terms in French and Somali. In addition, these countries are seen as less prominent in the Arab world than Yemen, where a civil war between the Saudi-backed pro-government forces and the rebel Houthi movement is ongoing. Fake news has escalated in Yemen, and the Yemeni media are polarized; audiences do not trust the media, as shown by a survey conducted by DT Global and ARK Group in 2021. The need for studies on this phenomenon is thus pronounced (ARK 2021). From a terminological perspective, it can be concluded that, while “fake news” as a term is still accepted academically in the MENA region, it has been criticized and is gradually being replaced with “information disorder.” At a thematic level, Tando, Lim, and Ling (2017) suggest six types of fake news based on their literature review, namely news satire, news parody, news fabrication, photo manipulation, propaganda, and advertising. Based on a metaanalysis of the literature regarding fake news in Arab countries, it can be inferred that scholars have refrained from addressing certain topics and focused mainly on propaganda. For instance, only two studies address satirical news: Aballah (2018) and Saadany, Mohamed, and Orasan (2020). The studies mentioned above not only bring up prominent topics related to fake news; they also pave the way for further relevant research that can bridge the current gaps in the academic field. Researchers have concluded that greater levels of media literacy would improve critical media consumption. Hence, more studies are required to examine the media literacy skills that can enhance critical practices related to social media (Melki et al. 2021, 9). Melki et al. (2021, 9) assert that level of education affects belief in disinformation; therefore, media literacy must be introduced at different educational levels. Furthermore, Aoun Barakat, Dabbous, and Tarhini (2021) note that users who have high levels of media literacy are better able to identify fake news. Rampersad and Althiyabi (2020, 9) recommend that studies be carried out to explore the correlation between sociocultural aspects and the ability to identify fake news. They assume that the nature of fake news can play a role in how easy I N FO R M ATI O N D I SO R D ER IN THE GLOBA L SOUTH or difficult it is to identify, a hypothesis which can be tested in future studies. Aoun Barakat, Dabbous, and Tarhini (2021) also recommend examining the differences between “digital natives” (younger users) and “digital immigrants” (older users) when dealing with fake news. The knowledge regarding audience interaction with potentially fake content can be complemented by studies about how the audience is affected by fact-checking initiatives. Thus, research that measures the impact of newly launched verification projects on viewers/readers from different backgrounds is needed (Bailla and Yachoulti 2020, 28). Abdel Ghany (2020, 37) hypothesizes that factchecking pages on social media exert an influence on mainstream media, and that this can contribute to improving the professionalism of different media. Future research can investigate this hypothesis. As mentioned above, many researchers view technology as a double-edged sword. As such, Daffalla et al. (2020, 19) emphasize the need to focus on investigating how the use of technology could impact different groups, especially vulnerable ones, and how it could empower activists. To counter the abuse of technology, Jones (2019, 1410) suggests that more studies be carried out to learn about mechanisms that can be deployed to identify bots and how bots can be abused to disseminate propaganda. Collaboration among researchers and experts from different disciplines can help to determine the source of bots as well as their nature and influence. 5. CONCLUSION This literature review has revealed the intersection of several issues. In summary, social media have reshaped the media landscape in Arab countries. Researchers praised the role of social media during the early stages, as they gave a voice to voiceless people who had been marginalized by traditional media controlled by authoritarian regimes. However, studies have also explored the disadvantages of social media, one of which is that they can be utilized by authoritarian regimes and opposing parties to spread fake news. This danger intensified during the Covid-19 pandemic, since social media contributed to the spread of the infodemic. At the same time, researchers have noted that traditional media are not able to deter this amplified risk, as their restrained editorial policies do not address fact checking; in fact, some of the traditional media houses are themselves involved in spreading fake news. Middle East and North Africa – 72