Country Website Saudi Arabia https://data.gov.sa/ Oman https://data.gov.om/?lang=ar UAE https://bayanat.ae/ar-ae Qatar https://www.data.gov.qa/pages/home/ Bahrain https://www.data.gov.bh/ar/ Egypt www.egypt.gov.eg Jordan https://portal.jordan.gov.jo/wps/portal/OpenData Lebanon https://impact.cib.gov.lb/home A policy paper titled “Access to Information in the Arab World,” published by ARIJ in 2019, highlights the absence of such legislation in Egypt, Iraq, Syria, Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Somalia, Djibouti, and Comoros. Moreover, there are no indicators that the Gulf states are close to passing laws that guarantee the right to access to information for their citizens. The paper recommends that Arab countries which have not yet passed legislation guaranteeing the right of citizens to access information adopt such laws. It also urges the countries that have approved such legislation to amend it to align with global standards and best practices (Shuqeir 2019). Naturally, some Arab countries have policies and initiatives that guarantee access to certain types of information that are not restricted by the government and can be accessed and circulated. In addition to the official statistics centers, Table 12 lists a number of portals for official data permitted by a number of Arab countries. Global and local organizations remain a primary source of information and data for Arab citizens, journalists, fact checkers, and researchers. Often, these organizations provide information on topics and issues that Arab governments do not provide or publish. Certain policies and practices would effectively contribute to limiting the circulation of mis- and disinformation. These should ensure the right of citizens, journalists, and fact checkers to access information and data and must secure their right to communicate with official entities at all times. Additionally, official administrations should continuously publish on their websites all the data and information that they have regarding issues that concern people. I N FO R M ATI O N D I SO R D ER IN THE GLOBA L SOUTH In the next section of this study, we discuss the legal and regulatory responses to information disorder in the Arab world, and we look into how the fight against disinformation and misinformation is being used as a pretext to suppress freedom of speech and freedom of press in the region. Table 12: Official data portals in various Arab countries 7. THE LEGAL RESPONSE: SUPPRESSION OF THE FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION In most Arab countries, allegations of “fake news” or “disinformation” are sometimes used as a pretext to suppress freedom of expression and silence government critics. Most of these countries have legislation with at least two or three articles that deal with media laws, publications, electronic and cybercrime, and the associated criminal laws. These combat the dissemination of false news and punish the publishers. The legislation imposes fines and imprisonment ranging from days to years on anyone who spreads false news or rumors, whether during war or in peacetime. During the Covid-19 crisis, the following countries raised the penalties in their legislation: • Sudan: Article 24 of the amendments to the Cybercrime Law of 2020 states that a person will be punished by imprisonment from one to four years or by flogging, or both, for publishing “false news or reports via the Internet, communications, or any information means or applications, threat- Middle East and North Africa – 51