is often applied selectively and in a politically motivated manner, and used to stifle freedom of expression and criticism of the government. The punishments prescribed by this legislation often include fines and prison sentences. OVERVIEW OF THE LEGISLATION The laws used to combat information disorder in the Asian region are quite varied. Some are relatively recent, in part due to the ongoing Covid-19 crisis and regulatory responses against the “infodemic.” However, an increased enthusiasm among Asian governments to fight “fake news,” including through regulatory means, has been observed in recent years (Tani 2018). As can be seen in Table 3, however, other laws date back many decades. Some of these, in countries that have experienced colonization, were first enacted during colonial times. It has been observed that British colonial-era laws are still being used in parts of Asia to suppress dissent (McLaughlin 2021). Table 3 contains an overview of legislation in Asia related to information disorder, indicating the sections of each law that are relevant in terms of definitions, offences, and punishments. We searched for official English versions of the legislation. In some cases, such as in countries where English is not an official language, unofficial English translations have been used. (Consult the list of references at the end of this report for the sources of legislation.) Where the text of directives and legislation could not be found in English, we relied on analyses, media reports, or scholarly works. Where we do not specify the relevant section, article, or chapter, it is because we were not able to identify these in English versions of the legislation. Sometimes the categories overlap: for example, a law on electronic transactions could also have provisions relating to defamation. In Table 3 we have tried to categorize the legislation according to the most appropriate category. Details of legislation Table 3: Overview of the relevant legislation in Asia Country Relevant sections/articles Legislation related to “fake news” or falsehoods Protection from Online Falsehoods and Manipulation Act (POFMA), 2019 Singapore Sections 7, 20, 24 Anti-Fake News Act, No. 803 of 2018 (Repealed) Malaysia Section 4(1) Bill on the Manipulation of Information (see Arapova 2020) Kyrgyzstan Amendments to Criminal and Administrative Codes (see CPJ 2020b; CPJ 2021) Uzbekistan Defamation, libel, or insult legislation Penal Code, Act XLV of 1860 Bangladesh Section 499 Penal Code of Malaysia, Act 574, February 1, 2018 Malaysia Sections 499, 500, 501, 502, 503 Criminal Code of the Republic of Korea South Korea Articles 307(1), 307(2), 308, 309(1), 309(2), 311 Criminal Code of the Republic of China Taiwan Articles 309, 310, 312, 313 Revised Penal Code of the Philippines, 1930, Act No. 3815 Philippines Chapter 1, Articles 355, 356, 357, 358, 359. Section 2, Article 360 Penal Code of Bhutan, 2004 Bhutan Chapter 22: 317, 320, 319(a), 319(b) Penal Code of India India 499, 500, 501, 502 Penal Code of Japan, Act 45 of 1907 Japan Articles 230(1), 230(2), 233 Criminal Code of Cambodia Cambodia Articles 305, 306, 307, 308 Criminal Code of Mongolia Mongolia Articles 111(1), 111(2), 111(3) I N FO R M ATI O N D I SO R D ER IN THE GLOBA L SOUTH Asia – 2 1 9