the political tensions between pro-democratic groups and the oppressed military society leading to the incitement of violence for several decades. In 2012, intra-communal violence occurred due to the deeply-seated [sic] mistrust, the rooted authoritarian culture of administrative structures and unclear policies of immigration, and [the violence] escalated until 2014. Since then, the dissemination of hate speech through various forms of media coverage [has] emerged. (PEN Myanmar 2015, 3–4) A qualitative study on Myanmar, carried out by LIRNEasia and MIDO, with Kantar TNS Myanmar, found intense anti-Muslim sentiment online in 2017, as the conflict in Rakhine intensified. Other research subjects reported that they refrained from using their real names on Facebook to avoid becoming the targets of hate based on their ethnicity (LIRNEasia 2018). Furthermore, those—including journalists—who have attempted to highlight abuses in Myanmar, for example discrimination against Rohingya people, have faced harassment and suppression at the hands of the state (Crispin 2019; Warren 2017). CELEBRITY GOSSIP Rumors and false information about prominent public figures, such as celebrities and political figures, are also common topics of mis- or disinformation. This has been observed on several occasions, including in India and South Korea. JeongHyun Lee, ICTD fellow at the United Nations University Institute in Macau, noted the following of South Korea: For some famous people, specifically celebrities and politicians, there are a lot of [rumors] that are not necessarily credible facts. Some information is not very important, but it attracts many people’s attention. These [pieces of information], such as their clothing brands, [where they] live, [their] dating partners, [the] schools they graduated [from], and even the their family members’ lives, often get more attention. Moreover, in most cases, that personal information comes from an individual social media post, without any verification. (interview, 2021) 2.2 MODES OF DIFFUSION OF INFORMATION DISORDER Mis- and disinformation can spread through both online and offline modes, such as through digital platforms, through traditional media, and by word of mouth. I N FO R M ATI O N D I SO R D ER IN THE GLOBA L SOUTH DIGITAL PLATFORMS Facebook, WhatsApp, and YouTube are very popular social media platforms in Asia. Twitter, Instagram, LINE, and Telegram are also used, as well as country-specific applications like Kakao Talk in South Korea and Zalo in Vietnam. Different platforms pose different challenges in terms of tackling information disorder (e.g. direct messaging applications vs. more public types of platforms), which will be discussed later on. Sometimes, cross-platform activity takes place as well. For instance, in Pakistan online disagreements between politicians and civil society take place on Twitter, but they are passed on to the general public via Facebook and WhatsApp (interview, Jahangir, 2021). The rate of spread and the impact of mis- and disinformation spread via social media platforms will depend on how many people use social media and whether they use it as a source of information and news. (For more on information sharing behavior in Asia, see Zainudeen and Amarasinghe 2019). For example, in Japan, which has an aging population, fewer people use digital media to access news; instead, they rely more on traditional media. Most people who turn out to vote at elections are also older. So while online smear campaigns have taken place during election times, they do not appear to have influenced election outcomes in a meaningful sense (interview, Kajimoto, 2021). The opposite effect is possible in countries where more people use digital media to access information. TRADITIONAL MEDIA Information disorder can also be enhanced through mainstream media. This can be due to a lack of resources and funding for independent media organizations, as well as poor media ethics practices. For instance, Laxman Datt Pant of Media Action Nepal, who conducts training for journalists, reported finding serious problems with misleading information reported in the Nepali media (Pant 2021). He further observed: Body shaming was there, character assassination was there, questioning the role of a particular gender, including that of LGBTQI [people] and women. And there are different social stigmas— human rights, human rights violation cases— Asia – 1 9 9