38 Hate Speech Ignited: Understanding Hate Speech in Myanmar T his section provides an analysis of the current landscape for hate speech in Myanmar and iden- tifies the disturbing trends associated with such virulent speech in the country. The analysis draws particularly on the expertise, knowledge, and experience of CSO representatives from Myanmar. Part A explores the key narratives of hate speech and ultranationalism that have been construct- ed in Myanmar. Part B addresses the main drivers of hate speech, including who the key beneficiaries are and what policies have been put in place to foment hatred and division; this part also examines underlying contributors to the problem, including socio-economic factors such as poverty and edu- cation. Part C delves into the online and offline channels of dissemination. Finally, Part D analyzes the negative impact and effects of hate speech on communities, civil society, and activism in Myanmar. A. Key Narratives of Hate and Ultranationalism Consultations and interviews with CSOs highlighted a number of hate speech narratives, all of which have been interlinked and reinforce a central meta-narrative of Buddhist-Burman dominance.178 Each particular narrative has exploited differences in identity, religion, and ethnicity to stoke fear and divide communities in Myanmar, leading communities to believe that their identities and existences are under attack. This section maps the key constructed narratives of hate that the government, military, ultranationalist groups, and their supporters have deliberately promulgated. The section also highlights how hate speech and misinformation circulating in Myanmar has drawn simultaneously on multiple narratives to further an ultimate agenda of ultranationalism and hate. Finally, the section analyzes how these multiple narratives have been constructed in such a manner that they have set the stage for violence by framing it as necessary for survival in the face of growing threats. Exploiting an Environment of Prejudice and Fear Narratives of hate speech have had widespread appeal because they exploit circumstances already present in Myanmar: namely historical divisions and segregation; existing stereotypes and prejudices bolstered by misinformation; and rumors, fears, and paranoia cultivated over the years by successive military regimes. All of these factors have increased the appeal of ultranationalism and the narratives put forward by its adherents. While the narratives have further cemented societal division and discrimination, interviewees noted that messaging builds off of pervasive racism already present in Myanmar. One activist de- scribed the centrality of race in self-identification and social interaction by pointing to the Burmese expression “race in a human, bone in a chicken (luu mar a myo, kyat mar a yoe)” as one that “gives a message of how important race is for humans.”179 Another explained: Color discrimination is . . . deep-rooted; we don’t really name it, but it is there. Imagine if the Rohingya people were not dark but white, or Chinese: People would react differ178 179 FGD (January 2019 and December 2019). 002-R3-02, 1; See also FGD (January 2019 and December 2019).