STRATEGIES, TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR SOCIAL MEDIA MANIPULATION Messaging and Valence Cyber troops use a variety of messaging and valence strategies when conducting information operations online (Table 2). Valence is a term that is used to define the attractiveness (goodness) or averseness (badness) of a message, event or thing. A prominent technique of social media manipulation is the use of online commentators who actively engage in conversation and debate with genuine social media users. Their activities span a variety of platforms online, including traditional web forums, blogs, news websites, and social media platforms, and they use a variety of valence strategies when in conversation with real users. We found evidence of government or political party organizations using online commentators to shape discussions on the Internet and social media platforms in three ways: (1) spreading pro-government or pro-party propaganda; (2) attacking the opposition or mounting smear campaigns; or (3) neutral strategies that involved diverting conversations or criticism away from important issues, or fact-checking information. The second messaging and valence strategy we identified was the use of trolls who target specific individuals, communities or organizations with hate speech or various forms of online harassment (Table 2). These targeted and hateful messages are used as a systematic attempt to persecute minority opinions and political dissent, both in the context of elections and as a tool of social control in authoritarian regimes. We found reports of state-sponsored trolling campaigns targeting political dissidents, members of the opposition, or journalists in 27 of the 48 countries in our sample. Valence and messaging strategies are usually carried out by cyber troops who operate fake accounts. These accounts are also used to create, disseminate and share junk news and other campaign-crafted information online. We found evidence of fake accounts in 46 of the 48 countries in our sample. We examined three kinds of fake accounts: (1) automated accounts; (2) human accounts; and (3) hybrid or cyborg accounts (see Table 2). Automated accounts—also known as “political bots”—are pieces of software or code designed to mimic human behavior online. They can be used to perform various manipulative techniques including spreading junk news and propaganda during elections and referenda, or manufacturing a false sense of popularity or support (so-called ‘astroturfing’) by liking or sharing stories, ultimately drowning out authentic conversations about politics online. 11