more prevalent. Still, regulations were flouted and the policy of relying on self-enforcement proved inadequate to address the problem. Political parties and candidates which enforced attendance ceilings, social distancing, and face mask wearing found themselves at a disadvantage against those who did not and were not sanctioned. The accountability and responsibility of institutions that could then have served as duty-bearers were found wanting. In addition, the campaign environment was negatively affected by the shutdown of Internet service in Rakhine and Chin states, which limited the free flow of information on both the elections and COVID19 situation; the use of hate speech and misinformation against candidates from ethnic or religious minorities, both online and in person; a rise in the number of recorded instances of election-related violence; censorship of campaign speeches on state media; and persistent impressions that the Union Election Commission favoured the ruling party when arbitrating the campaign. All of these factors resulted in an additional advantage for bigger or incumbent political parties and candidates, which were able to mobilise their resources and offices in ways others could not. 24