Law;10 the promulgation of the Counter-Terrorism Law;11 the amendment of the Union Taxation Law;12 and the enactment of the Cybersecurity Law.13 Thirteen days after the coup, the junta revoked Articles 5, 7 and 8 of the Law Protecting the Privacy and Security of Citizens. Notably, Article 8(c), which barred interception of private communication, and 8(d), which prohibited authorities from demanding communication records without legal procedure, were revoked. This granted state actors unchecked access to citizens’ data and eliminated safeguards against surveillance. Similarly, on 14 February 2021, the junta arbitrarily amended sections 121, 124 and 500 of the Penal Code.14 Section 505, in particular, now criminalises actions that cause or intend to cause fear amongst citizens or the public as well as cause or intend to cause the spread of false news, knowing or believing that it is untrue.15 These vague provisions have been used to prosecute thousands.16 The research findings also indicate that the junta attempted to more effectively control internet users through amending the Electronic Transactions Law17 on 15 February 2021. It expanded the definition of “information” and included terms such as “video” and “application” in Section 2(a) of the law to broaden the scope of its jurisdiction. This has allowed the junta to criminalise users for sharing protest videos or using communications apps like Signal. Free Expression Myanmar reported that the amendment has seriously threatened freedom of expression and the protection of individual privacy,18 while Human Rights Watch stated that the amended Electronic Transactions Law prevents the free flow of information and criminalises the dissemination of information through cyberspace, including expression critical of the coup or the acts of the junta.19 Meanwhile, amendments to the Broadcasting Law in November 2021 removed previous exclusions of internet-based media, allowing the junta to prosecute online broadcasters. Punishment under this law was increased from fines to imprisonment, signalling a more aggressive clampdown on digital expression.20 The new Counter-Terrorism Law promulgated on 1 March 2023 has also been used to strengthen the junta’s surveillance net. Under Chapter 14, provisions were enacted 10 https://myanmar-law-library.org/law-library/laws-and-regulations/laws/myanmar-laws-1988-until-now/state-administration-council-2021/myanmar-laws-2021/state-administration-council-law-no-63-2021-second-amendment-law-to-the.html 11 https://sacoffice.gov.mm/my/bylaws_page 12 https://myanmar-law-library.org/law-library/laws-and-regulations/laws/myanmar-laws-1988-until-now/state-administration-council-2021/myanmar-laws-2022/state-administration-council-law-no-01-2022-law-amending-the-union-taxlaw-2021.html 13 https://mmlibrary.uwazi.io/en/entity/48w9o50foi6 14 https://www.law-democracy.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/10/Myanmar.Penal-Code-Analysis.Burmese.FINAL_.pdf 15 https://myanmar-law-library.org/IMG/pdf/law_no_5-6_2021_sac_-2.pdf 16 https://ispmyanmar.com/community/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/DM-44.pdf 17 https://www.myanmar-responsiblebusiness.org/pdf/electronic-transactions-law_consolidated_2014-and-2021_my.pdf 18 Free Expression Myanmar. (2021, 18 February). Myanmar’s new Electronic Transactions Law Amendment. https://freeexpressionmyanmar.org/myanmars-new-electronic-transactions-law-amendment/ 19 Human Rights Watch. (2021, 2 March). Myanmar: Post-Coup Legal Changes Erode Human Rights. https://www.hrw.org/ news/2021/03/02/myanmar-post-coup-legal-changes-erode-human-rights 20 ARTICLE 19. (2021, December). Rebuilding an Architecture of Oppression: The impact of the military coup on freedom of expression and civic space in Myanmar. https://www.article19.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Rebuilding-an-Architecture-of-Oppression.pdf 11